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	<title>DARFUR SITUATION &#187; Analysen</title>
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	<description>Juristische Begleitung eines Krieges</description>
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		<title>Analysis 15: Nothing over something: How a non-existing immunity trumped international and constitutional law</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analysis-15-nothing-over-something-how-a-non-existing-immunity-trumped-international-and-constitutional-law/</link>
		<comments>http://darfursituation.org/analysis-15-nothing-over-something-how-a-non-existing-immunity-trumped-international-and-constitutional-law/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 20 Jul 2015 11:56:13 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Aktuelles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Arrest Warrant]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Omar al-Bashir]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[South Africa]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://darfursituation.org/?p=1208</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[A recent trip of Omar al-Bashir to an African Union summit in South Africa could have lead to the arrest of the alleged criminal. However, the South African government choose to ignore its obligations under international and national law. In turn, a domestic court bashes the government’s actions. Introduction 1      Picture this: An international diplomatic [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>A recent trip of Omar al-Bashir to an African Union summit in South Africa could have lead to the arrest of the alleged criminal. However, the South African government choose to ignore its obligations under international and national law. In turn, a domestic court bashes the government’s actions.<span id="more-1208"></span></em></p>
<p><strong>Introduction</strong></p>
<p>1      Picture this: An international diplomatic summit, visited by heads of states of over 50 countries. Among them a genocidal criminal, wanted with an international arrest warrant. Outside of the summit, activist groups attempt to get the perpetrator arrested with the help of the domestic judiciary against the passive and allegedly powerless host government. Finally, a judge finds the government obliged to hinder the criminal’s departure. Nonetheless, he manages to board an aircraft and leaves the country. Back home, a huge crowd celebrates him.</p>
<p>2      It sounds like a badly written Hollywood-thriller. Yet, this is more or less what has happened during the African Union’s June 2015 summit in South Africa. Of course, the alleged criminal is <em>Omar al-Bashir</em>, President of Sudan. He is wanted for five counts of crimes against humanity, two counts of war crimes and three counts of genocide, as identified in two arrest warrants by the International Criminal Court in March 2009 and July 2010. The North Gauteng High Court of Pretoria was actively involved in keeping <em>al-Bashir</em> in South Africa, while the South African government mimicked the three monkeys: It did not follow the High Court’s interim order to take all steps to hinder <em>al-Bashir</em> from leaving, nor did it know anything about his plans and, finally, neither does the government sufficiently explain its course of action and it is far from justifiying its violation of international law.</p>
<p><strong>The African Union summit and parallel court proceedings</strong></p>
<p>3      The African Union (AU) regularly holds summits during which the heads of states and governments as well as their staff discuss issues concerning the continent. The summit is held in one of the AU’s member states. Being a regular event, the AU is used to organize, conduct and manage these summits. Among the tasks habitually fulfilled by the AU are invitations to its members. To simplify the process, the AU provides a host agreement that regulates the material and technical organization of a summit. It is signed by the AU and the respective host country. Included in this host agreement is a provision dealing with immunities. In detail, the 2015 host agreement between the AU and South Africa provides:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Representatives of member states (…) shall, while exercising their functions and during their travel to and from the place of meetings, be accorded the following privileges and immunities: (a) immunity from personal arrest of detention (…).”</p></blockquote>
<p>4      The foregoing is the view of the South African government during the relevant court proceedings. In essence, the government maintains that the president’s immunity trumps any other applicable rule: <em>Al-Bashir </em>was invited by the AU, South Africa merely provided the venue. As such, South Africa was first and foremost obliged to uphold and protect the inviolability of <em>al-Bashir</em>.</p>
<p>5      The AU summit was still ongoing when an NGO sought relief from the North Gauteng High Court. On 14 June 2015, a sunday, the Southern Africa Litigation Centre applied to the High Court seeking an arrest of <em>al-Bashir</em>. While the respondent government officials and agencies were preparing their brief, the Court released an interim order, which compelled the respondents to prevent <em>al-Bashir</em> from leaving the country until a final order was made. Instead of submitting their brief, however, the respondents asked for an extension of the deadline, which was granted until Monday morning. After the extended deadline was missed by the respondents, the High Court issued an order holding that the failure of the respondents to arrest <em>al-Bashir</em> was inconsistent with the South African constitution and compelling the respondents to take all reasonable steps to prepare to arrest the suspect. Around the same time the court issued its order, <em>al-Bashir</em> left South Africa via plane.</p>
<p>6      The South African proceedings were mirrored in The Hague, were ICC-officials were consulting with the South African Embassy in the Netherlands. Tellingly, in a decision of 13 June 2015, the Pre-Trial Chamber II denied a request by the Prosecutor to clarify the obligations of South Africa as a state party on the ground that it was</p>
<blockquote><p>“unnecessary to further clarify that the Republic of South Africa is under the duty under the Rome Statute to immediately arrest Omar Al-Bashir and surrender him to the Court, as the existence of this duty is already clear and needs not be further reiterated. The Republic of South Africa is already aware of this statutory duty and a further reminder is unwarranted.” (ICC, Pre-Trial Chamber II, Decision following the Prosecutor’s request for an order further clarifying that the Republic of South Africa is under the obligation to immediately arrest and surrender Omar Al Bashir, 13 June 2015, ICC-02/05-01/09-242, para. 10)</p></blockquote>
<p><strong>The North Gauteng High Court bashes South Africa’s government</strong></p>
<p>7     A little over a week later the North Gauteng High Court issued its final judgment in the matter <em>Southern Africa Litigation Centre v Minister of Justice And Constitutional Development and Others</em> – a very interesting read. Overall, the judgment is based on two major reasons, the first being the South African constitutional framework to include international law in the domestic legal system and the second being the question of immunity for the Sudanese president.</p>
<p>8      But first, the High Court begins its judgment with recalling how the government violated the interim order to take all necessary steps in order to hinder <em>al-Bashir’s</em> departure. This finding is repeated, in harsher words, towards the end of the judgment as well. Here, the Court urges the government to take domestic jurisprudence to heart.</p>
<p><strong>Incorporation of international law into the South African legal system</strong></p>
<p>9      The first major aspect of the case and the subsequent judgment is the relationship between domestic (constitutional) law and international law. The High Court spends a good deal on how exactly international law, be it treaty or customary law, is incorporated into the South African legal order.</p>
<p>10   The High Court recalls the different treaty obligations of South Africa, namely the Rome Statute, the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the General Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Organization of African Unity and the host agreement between the AU and South Africa.</p>
<p>11    The Rome Statute was incorporated by the Implementation Act of 2002, much like the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was incorporated into domestic law. The Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Organization of African Unity, however, has not been incorporated into domestic law.</p>
<p>12    Prima facie, a conflict between international treaties exists in the domestic legal order. The Rome Statute strips al-Bashir of his immunity while the Vienna Convention confers immunity on him. It all boils down to the question of how that conflict is to be resolved. The North Gauteng High Court opts for a solution according to South African constitutional jurisprudence. In this matter, the courts have identified a constitutional duty of state organs to interpret constitutional law in accordance with international law and especially international human rights law.</p>
<p>13    This approach is similar to the principle of ‘<em>Völkerrechtsfreundlichkeit’</em> in German constitutional law, meaning that the German constitution needs to be interpreted ‘friendly’ to international law.</p>
<p><strong>No immunity for <em>al-Bashir</em></strong></p>
<p>14    In addition to the above relationship, the court addresses the question of a possible immunity for <em>Omar al-Bashir</em>. As a head of state, however, he may enjoy an immunity under international treaty law (the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations) or customary law. The Rome Statute cannot, in the correct view of the High Court, strip the head of a non-member state to the Statute, as Sudan, of the immunity. Nevertheless, Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005) effectively achieves this outcome. As a binding resolution under chapter VII of the UN-Charter, Sudan is as a member of the UN bound by the Council’s decision. Here, the High Court explicitly refers to the jurisprudence of the ICC.</p>
<p>15    The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations can not alter this result. Incorporated by the Immunities Act, this act recognizes that heads of states are immune to the extent afforded to them by treaty or customary law – and treaty law strips <em>al-Bashir</em> of this immunity.</p>
<p>16    The host agreement, in turn, is not applicable to <em>al-Bashir</em>. The Court understands this agreement as to include only AU staff. While this may be debated given the wording of the agreement, there is one further smart and convincing move of the High Court. It held that the purpose of said agreement is to facilitate the organization and conduct of the AU summit. <em>Al-Bashir</em>, however, is not tasked with any responsibility regarding organization, conduct or management of the summit. With this twist the court turns the South African government’s position against itself.</p>
<p>17   Moreover, the host agreement was not incorporated into domestic law by an act of parliament. As such, it is inferior to the Rome Statute and the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which were both transformed by the legislative.</p>
<p><strong>Foreign policy as an exception?</strong></p>
<p>18    In an <em>obiter dictum</em> the court mentions South African foreign policy. It seems as if the court was prepared to let considerations of South Africa’s diplomatic relations alter the foregoing finding, if this was necessary to protect such interests.</p>
<p>The court maintains:</p>
<blockquote><p>“Having regard to the principle of separation of powers (…), it is in any event clear that this court would not have concerned itself with policy decisions which in their nature fall outside our ambit. As a court we are concerned with the integrity of the rule of law and the administration of justice.” (para. 33 of the order of 24 June 2015).</p></blockquote>
<p>19    This could be read as an opportunity to keep the door open for exception due to policy. Given the court’s detailed analysis of constitutional law and the last sentence of the above quote, though, this seems rather unlikely. In the end, the court bases its decision on constitutional law whch prevails over political arguments.</p>
<p>20   Surprisingly – and the South African government deserves credit for this approach – policy considerations were not used as an argument in the present case. Maybe the government is angry with itself for forgeting this line of reasoning. In the long run this strategy (or lapse) strengthens the rule of law and the respect for international and constitutional law.</p>
<p><strong>What remains?</strong></p>
<p>21    The High Court closes with alarming words:</p>
<blockquote><p>“A democratic State based on the rule of law cannot exist or function, if the government ignores its constitutional obligations and fails to abide by court orders. A court is the guardian of justice, the corner-stone of a democratic system based on the rule of law. If the State, an organ of a State or State-official does not abide by court orders, the democratic edifice will crumble stone-by-stone until it collapsed and chaos ensues.” (para. 37 of the order of 24 June 2015).</p></blockquote>
<p>Additionally, the court finds it prudent to invite the competent authorities to consider whether criminal proceedings are approriate (para. 39 of the order of 24 June 2015).</p>
<p>22    In conclusion, the South African government’s approach is rejected by the Hogh Court for all the right reasons. The High Court’s judgment itself contributes to international law. The court’s order will surely be an important precedent, even if it failed to achieve the ultimate goal. Yet, <em>Omar al-Bashir</em> will most likely not travel to South Africa in the near future. After all, this may be a small step in enforcing the ICC’s arrest warrant.</p>
<p><em><a title="Datenbank" href="http://darfursituation.org/datenbank/">Download the Analysis here.</a></em></p>
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		<title>Not shocked into Action: Human Rights Watch on Mass Rape in Tabit</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/not-shocked-into-action-human-rights-watch-on-mass-rape-in-tabit/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 25 Feb 2015 17:44:38 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Aktuelles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ankläger]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Resolution 2200]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Security Council]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Sicherheitsrat]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Tabit]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Tabita]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Tabitha]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://darfursituation.org/?p=1145</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[When the ICC-Prosecutor addressed the Security Council last December (here),  she commented on the alleged mass rape of more than 200 women in Tabit, Darfur. In her words, &#8220;The recent allegations of rape of approximately 200 women and girls in Tabit should shock this Council into action.” Despite her comment , several members of the [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>When the ICC-Prosecutor addressed the Security Council last December (<a href="http://darfursituation.org/the-prosecution-abandons-all-hope-–-the-20th-report-to-the-security-council/">here</a>),  she commented on the alleged mass rape of more than 200 women in Tabit, Darfur. In her words, &#8220;The recent allegations of rape of approximately 200 women and girls in Tabit should shock this Council into action.” Despite her comment , several members of the Security Council denied these accusations.</p>
<p>Last week Human Rights Watch released &#8220;<a href="http://www.hrw.org/node/132716/">Mass Rape in Darfur</a>&#8220;, a report which supports the accusations made by the Prosecutor. Nevertheless, the report does not solve anything. <span id="more-1145"></span>The report details a three-day-attack on Tabit, a small town close to El Fasher in North Darfur once held by rebel forces but as of today controlled by the Sudanese armed forces. According to Human Rights Watch, members of the armed forces stationed close to the city launched an attack on 30 October 2014 that continued until 1 November 2014. During the raid, soldiers gathered the men at the outskirts of the city, where the men were held, beaten and abused. This enabled the troops to rape the women left in the town. Overall, Human Rights Watch fears dozens of victims of war crimes and crimes against humanity as perpetrated by members of the Sudanese armed forces.</p>
<p>One day after the release of the report, the Security Council adopted <a href="http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2200%20(2015)">Resolution 2200 (2015)</a>, extending the mandate of the Darfur Panel of Experts. During the debate, the US-representative has addressed the incident at Tabit. However, the Sudanese representative has denied that the incident took place and made recourse to a report by UNAMID which did not find any evidence. He also referred to a <a href="http://www.refworld.org/docid/5492dd394.html">letter</a> dated 3 December 2014 from the Permanent Representative of the Sudan to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council. Here, the Special Prosecutor for Crimes in Darfur, a Sudanese official, gives an account of his visit to Tabit. He did not find any evidence pointing to crimes and thus refused to open criminal proceedings. This is in line with UNAMID-reporting. The mission was tasked with investigating the alleged raid and reported back that it did not take place.</p>
<p>While Sudan (and Russia) claim nothing has happened in Tabit, the USA, Human Rights Watch and the ICC are convinced that the crimes took place. They claim that UNAMID was not able to investigate independently, because Sudanese officials were present during the hearings. Likewise, the Special Prosecutor was working together with other Sudanese agencies and did not convey an impartial account of what has happened (or not) in Tabit.</p>
<p>There are two rather easy issues and one more complicated issue at hand.</p>
<p>First of all, the facts need to be established. The report prepared by Human Rights Watch seems to give evidence to the fact that at least something has happened and that this was not properly investigated by the competent domestic authorities.</p>
<p>Second, the legal analysis seems rather easy. Human Rights Watch is correct when it asserts that war crimes and crimes against humanity have been committed.</p>
<p>Third, and that is the problem, the question remains who will investigate and eventually conduct a trial. Sudan has, of course, the primary responsibility to do so. In addition to being the territorial state, Sudan is by way of <a href="http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-1-resolution-1593-rechtsgrundlage-für-den-istgh-im-darfur-konflikt/">Resolution 1593 (2005) </a>obliged to investigate these accusations and put alleged perpetrators to trial. However, the Sudanese authorities have put an halt to criminal investigations.</p>
<p>Complementary to the Sudanese jurisdiction the ICC may investigate. But because its jurisdiction is complementary, any past or future Sudanese investigation must be measured against art. 17 (2) Rome Statute. It is then up to the ICC to decide whether &#8220;the proceedings were not or are not being conducted independently or impartially, and they were or are being conducted in a manner which, in the circumstances, is inconsistent with an intent to bring the person concerned to justice&#8221; (art. 17 [2] [c] Rome Statute). That issue may eventually be solved, however, the statement of the Prosecutor from December 2014 remains: She will not open any new investigation in the Darfur-situation (<a href="http://darfursituation.org/the-prosecutor-suspends-darfur-investigations/">here</a> and <a href="http://darfursituation.org/three-side-notes-to-the-halt-to-darfur-investigations/">here</a>). Thus, there will most likely not be an investigation by the ICC in the Tabit-incident. Given the divide in the Security Council with regard to Darfur in general &#8211; and the clear manifestation of the different &#8220;beliefs&#8221; with regard to Tabit in particular &#8211; the Security Council will not support any investigation with regard to Tabit.</p>
<p>Human Rights Watch seems to be aware of this. The recommendation to the ICC is therefore rather short: &#8220;The Office of the Prosecutor should investigate, to the extent possible, the allegations of rape and other crimes within the ICC’s mandate.&#8221; In addition, Human Rights Watch has lost confidence in the Security Council, which is asked to impose travel bans and asset freezes and to issue a resolution demanding access for UNAMID to Tabit.</p>
<p>An investigation in the crimes as reported by Human Rights Watch seems unlikely. Thus, no one will be held criminally responsible for the incident. The report has shed, however, light on a conflict that is ignored and it highlights the consequences of the Security Council&#8217;s inaction. What is the result for the people of Tabit? Unfortunately, there is none.</p>
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		<title>Analyse 14: The 2014 Arrest Warrant for Abdallah Banda</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-14-the-2014-arrest-warrant-for-abdallah-banda/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 07 Jan 2015 09:32:44 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Abdallah Banda]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[In preparation of the trial against Abdallah Banda, the ICC’s Trail Chamber IV recently issued a warrant for arrest. This decision is flawed, as pointed out by the dissenting judge. The Chamber misinterprets art. 58 ICC-Statute. I       Introduction 1     Abdallah Banda is Commander-in-Chief of the Justice and Equality Movement-Collectiv Leadership. Jointly with Saleh Jerbo, he [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>In preparation of the trial against Abdallah Banda, the ICC’s Trail Chamber IV recently issued a warrant for arrest. This decision is flawed, as pointed out by the dissenting judge. The Chamber misinterprets art. 58 ICC-Statute.</em><span id="more-1114"></span></p>
<p><strong>I       Introduction</strong></p>
<p>1     <em>Abdallah Banda</em> is Commander-in-Chief of the Justice and Equality Movement-Collectiv Leadership. Jointly with <em>Saleh Jerbo</em>, he is allegedly responsible for the 2007 attack on peacekeepers in Haskanita, South Darfur. <em>Banda </em>is allegedly criminally responsible as co-perpetrator for war crimes under article 25(3)(a) of the Rome Statute. While <em>Jerbo</em> is supposedly dead, the trial against <em>Banda</em> had been prepared during the last years.</p>
<p>2     In August 2009, Pre-Trial Chamber I issued a summons to appear. Subsequently, <em>Banda</em> appeared before the Pre-Trial Chamber in June 2010 where he was informed about the crimes which he is alleged to have committed. On this occasion, he waived his right to be present at the confirmation of charges hearing which took place in December 2010. In March 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber I unanimously confirmed the charges against <em>Banda</em> and committed him to trial.</p>
<p>3     A first starting date had been set for May 2014. Due to organizational difficulties, however, Trial Chamber IV vacated the date after consulting with prosecution and defence and set a new date. According to the Chamber’s schedule, the trial was to begin on 18 November 2014.</p>
<p>4     The decision presently under review vacated this date, suspended preparatory measures for the trial and issued an arrest warrant.</p>
<p><strong>II    The legal base for the decision</strong></p>
<p>5     When the charges against <em>Banda</em> were confirmed, the Presidency established Trial Chamber IV which succeeded in the powers held by the Pre-Trial Chamber. According to art. 61 (11) ICC-Statute, the new Trial Chamber became responsible for the conduct of subsequent proceedings.</p>
<p>6     In order to prepare the trial against <em>Banda</em>, Trial Chamber IV was concerned about the appearance of the accused before the ICC. Also, the Prosecutor requested the Chamber to issue an order requiring an undertaken from the accused that he will appear for trial. After a status conference was held, Trial Chamber IV found it necessary to review the summons to appear from 2009.</p>
<p>7    The Trial Chamber is competent to do so. After all, the power to review a decision has already been claimed by the Pre-Trial Chamber which reserved “its right to review this finding either <em>propio motu</em> or at the request of the Prosecutor, however, particularly if the suspects fail to appear on the date specified in the summons or fail to comply with the orders contained therein.“ As already stated, this review-power was by art. 61 (11) and 64 (6) (a) ICC-Statute transferred to the Trial Chamber when the charges were confirmed</p>
<p>8     Given the envisaged timeframe, the Chamber in 2014 seized the opportunity to review the summon to appear and revisited the facts.</p>
<p><strong>III  Voluntary appearance or need for arrest?</strong></p>
<p>9     Due to “latest developments” (para. 20), the Trial Chamber finds it better suited to issue a warrant of arrest. Its reasoning is based on art. 58 (8) ICC-Statute, which is understood by the judges as to require the accused to be personally willing to appear and to be in a position to do so (para. 22).</p>
<p>10  Troubling, however, the Chamber does not care about the first requirement. The majority explicitly states “regardless of whether Mr Banda wishes or not to be present at trial” (para. 21), an arrest warrant is the smarter way to procede. This approach may be due to the defence’s announcement that the accused was in fact willing to appear before the ICC. The Chamber seems to look for something else to justify a warrant of arrest and is not prepared to let the summon to appear stand.</p>
<p>11  It finds a solution in earlier jurisprudence. Referrencing the decision regarding the warrant of arrest for <em>Ali Kushayb</em> from 2007, the chamber notes that an individual needs to be in a position to voluntarily appear in The Hague. <em>Ali Kushayb</em> was imprisoned at the time, hence his appearance did not depend on his willingness. This lead the chamber to issue an warrant of arrest. Even then, this reasoning was not overall convincing, it is even less convincing in the <em>Banda</em>-case.</p>
<p>12  The aforementioned “latest developments” refer to the Sudanese Government’s behavior. Its standpoint on the ICC is well known, the outright rejection of the ICC and the government’s refusal to cooperate have paralyzed the ICC’s work during the last years. As of now, the government has developed an attitude that is hallmarked by arrogance: When the Registry submitted a cooperation request to the Sudanese embassy in The Hague on 31 July 2014, this letter was returned unopened to the ICC on 15 August 2014.</p>
<p>13  The approach choosen by the Trial Chamber is flawed. The Chamber’s construction of the decision on the behavior of Sudan and not on the behavior of the accused is ignoring the fundamentals of international criminal law. As pointed out by Judge <em>Eboe-Osuji</em> in his dissenting opinion, one needs to keep in mind that international criminal law is about individual criminal responsibility. Decisive for the choice between a summon to appear and an arrest warrant is consequently the behavior of the accused. The Trial Chamber is effectively sanctioning <em>Banda</em> for the government’s failure to cooperate.</p>
<p>14  Furthermore, the reference to the <em>Ali Kushayb</em>-decision goes astray. While in this case, the accused was known to be in prison, in the present case the accused’s whereabouts are unknown. It is, however, not for the ICC to always know where the accused is present. As long as there is no record of non-appearance or of an unwillingness to appear, the chamber should not assume that an accused will not appear. <em>Banda’s</em> appearance record has been good, as stated by the dissenting judge.</p>
<p>15  Moreover, to issue a warrant of arrest against an individual that is under protection by the Sudanese government trivializes the arrest warrants issued by the ICC. There exists one additional warrant which will not be executed by the Sudanese government.</p>
<p>16  Judge <em>Eboe-Osuji</em> is also correct when he asserts that the Trial Chamber has no power to suspend all preparatory measures (para. 25, dissenting opinion para. 26). It shows a lack of interest to trial the case by the majority in addition to there not being a base for that in the Rome-Statute.</p>
<p><strong>IV   Conculsion</strong></p>
<p>17  The Trial Chamber’s majority bases its decision on a flawed approach to art. 58 ICC-Statute. There was no need to issue a warrant of arrest. The dissenting opinion by Judge <em>Eboe-Osuji</em> is to be followed. It would be advisable if the Chamber revisited its own decision in the future.</p>
<p><em><a title="Datenbank" href="http://darfursituation.org/datenbank/">Download the Analysis here.</a></em></p>
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		<title>Analysis 13: The Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Libya – An Assessment</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analysis-13-the-report-of-the-international-commission-of-inquiry-on-libya-%e2%80%93-an-assessment/</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 25 May 2012 07:55:26 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Detainees]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[International Commission of Inquiry on Libya]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[International Criminal Court]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Mahari Hotel]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Mutassim al-Gaddafi]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Tawergha]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Unified Protector]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[The conflict in Libya 2011 has been closely monitored by an International Commission of Inquiry. As mandated by the United Nations Human Rights Council, the International Commission of Inquiry on Libya presented its report on violations of human rights law in Libya’s civil war. Allthough the report is very thourough, some remarks must be made. [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>The conflict in Libya 2011 has been closely monitored by an International Commission of Inquiry. As mandated by the United Nations Human Rights Council, the International Commission of Inquiry on Libya presented its report on violations of human rights law in Libya’s civil war. Allthough the report is very thourough, some remarks must be made. This analysis assesses the achievements and flaws of the report.<span id="more-825"></span> </em></p>
<p><strong>I       Introduction</strong></p>
<p>1     The conflict in Libya 2011 was overshadowed by violations of international law. In March 2011 the United Nations Human Rights Council established an International Commission of Inquiry on Libya (ICIL). It was mandated</p>
<p style="padding-left: 30px;">“to investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in Libya, to establish the facts and circumstances of such violations and of the crimes perpetrated, and , where possible identify those responsible to make recommendations, in particular, on accountability measures, all with a view to ensuring that those individuals responsible are held accountable, and to report to the Council at its seventeenth session, and calls upon the Libyan authorities to fully cooperate with the Commission.”<a href="#_ftn1">[1]</a></p>
<p>2     The Human Rights Council appointed three renowned jurists to the Commission, including one former president of the International Criminal Court (ICC). A first report was submitted in June 2011,<a href="#_ftn2">[2]</a> but due to the ongoing conflict in Libya the Commission’s mandate was subsequently extended until March 2012. In March 2012 the final report was presented in March 2012, it will be addressed here.<a href="#_ftn3">[3]</a></p>
<p><strong>II    Mandate</strong></p>
<p>3     The Commission’s mandate included alleged violations of international human rights law. The ICIL was not asked to support any criminal investigation, yet convinction. Thus the evidence before the Commission was not subject to the burden of proof required in criminal proceedings.</p>
<p>4     The ICIL investigated several aspects of the conflict. It focused on excessive use of force, unlawful killings, arbitrary detentions and enforced disappearances, torture and other forms of ill-treatment, targeted communities, sexual violence, attacks on the civilian population, NATO’s action and accountability for violations.</p>
<p>5     At the outset the Commission noted that it</p>
<p style="padding-left: 30px;">“is not possible to understand the current conditions in Libya without understanding the damage caused to the fabric of the society by decades of corruption, serious human rights violations and sustained repression of any opposition.”<a href="#_ftn4">[4]</a></p>
<p>Given this approach, the ICIL could have focussed on violations perpetrated by Gaddafi forces. Despite this starting point, the Commission investigated violations committed by all parties to the conflict. As well be seen, the Commission was mandated to do so.</p>
<p><strong>1)      The Mandate <em>ratione materiae </em>and the Applicable Legal Framework</strong></p>
<p><strong>a)    The Mandate <em>ratione materiae</em></strong></p>
<p>6     As noted the ICIL was mandated “to investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in Libya”.<a href="#_ftn5">[5]</a> However, this mandate determines only the <em>ratione materiae</em>, meaning that only violations of international human rights law were under scrutiny. Libyan national law as well as any other international legal regime were not subject to the investigation; the mandate is also silent in personal and temporal regard.</p>
<p>7    At a first glance this seems to exclude international humanitarian law and international criminal law. Other regimes of law seem not to apply. Meanwhile, the ICIL took these two regimes as another subject to focus on and evaluated the events in Libya along those lines as well.<a href="#_ftn6">[6]</a> Hence, is the ICIL’s investigation into other areas of law lawful? It is, as well be shown next.</p>
<p>8     With regard to international humanitarian law one must keep in mind the once disputed relationship between human rights law and international humanitarian law. Until not long ago the predominant view held that the two regimes were mutually exclusive. Under these circumstances, an evaluation of international humanitarian law by the ICIL would have been against the mandate. Today, however, most states, institutions, courts and scholars agree that both regimes are not mutually exclusive anymore, but that human rights law does not cease to apply in times of armed conflict. Furthermore, it is subject to debate how both regulations can be brought in conformity.</p>
<p>9     Several jurisprudential ways may be maintained. Some authors argue for a merging of the regimes,<a href="#_ftn7">[7]</a> while others describe the relationship with the concept of international humanitarian law as the <em>lex specialis</em> to the <em>lex generalis</em> of human rights law<a href="#_ftn8">[8]</a> or with the related concept of ‘<em>renvoi</em>’, meaning international humanitarian law making references to human rights law and <em>vice versa</em>.<a href="#_ftn9">[9]</a> However, this dispute is of importance only in the field of basic research in the theory of international law, for the practical effects remain the same, regardless of the line of arguments. Therefore, the lawyer is responsible for working out</p>
<p style="padding-left: 30px;">“with precision areas and questions where the co-ordinated application of provisions of both branches of the law leads to satisfactory — if not innovative — solutions, securing progress of the law or filling its gaps. […] The point is not one of derogation by priority […] but rather one of complex case-by-case mutual reinforcement and complement always on concrete issues. Thus, rather than stressing mutual exclusiveness, be it speciality or priority, it would be better to focus on two aspects: a) gap filling and development of the law by co-ordinated application of norms of human rights law in order to strengthen international humanitarian law and vice versa; b) interpretation allowing an understanding of one branch in the light of the other normative corpus in all situations where this is necessary, i. e. in armed conflict or occupation.”<a href="#_ftn10">[10]</a></p>
<p>Thus, it was precisely  the task of the ICIL to take a look at international humanitarian law. Without this legal regime, the final report would have been flawed in the truest sense, meaning there would have been missing aspects from the very beginning. This was also recognized by the ICIL in its first report when in noted that it</p>
<p style="padding-left: 30px;">“looked into both violations of international human rights law and relevant provisions of international humanitarian law, the lex specialis which applies during armed conflict.”<a href="#_ftn11">[11]</a></p>
<p>10  The Commission was also able to evualuate along the lines of international criminal law. This can be based on the following reasoning. International criminal law is of secondary nature: It complements human rights law, ensures its effectiveness, and improves compliance with human rights law and international humanitarian law by criminally sanctioning the most serious breaches of both regimes as crimes against humanity or war crimes.</p>
<p>11  One can also draw from the doctrine of implied powers to extend the mandate of the ICIL to these regimes. Implied powers are powers that “are not mentioned explicitly in constituent instruments, but that are considered to come with explicit powers or, in a broader definition, with the functions given to the organization.”<a href="#_ftn12">[12]</a> It means that “a term is being read into the organization&#8217;s statute not in order to modify it or add to the members’ burdens, but in order to give effect to what they agreed by becoming parties to the constitutional treaty.”<a href="#_ftn13">[13]</a> To limit the analysis of the ICIL to human rights law would run counter to the objective of the ICIL. As seen above, to look only at human rights law would have provided a flawed assessment.</p>
<p>12  This is also within the overall mandate of the Human Rights Council (HRC). The HRC was established by General Assemby Resolution 60/251 in 2006.<a href="#_ftn14">[14]</a> Accordingly, the Council is  “responsible for promoting universal respect for the protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms for all”.<a href="#_ftn15">[15]</a> Therefore, it is tasked to “address situations of violations of human rights, including gross and systematic violations”<a href="#_ftn16">[16]</a> and to “respond promptly to human rights emergencies”.<a href="#_ftn17">[17]</a> One may argue that the right to address times of armed conflict is not explicitly conferred to the Council. Diametrically opposed, the resolution does not exclude times of armed conflict. Furthermore, an armed conflict may always be considered as a “human rights emergency” within the Council’s mandate.</p>
<p>13  This shows that the Human Rights Council may be used to ensure compliance not only with human rights law but also with international humanitarian law. Of course the Council has no criminal jurisdiction. Thus, if the Council addresses questions of international criminal law, which it may, the Council should bear in mind the presumption of innocence. This is an integral part of the fair trial principle and an integral part of the rule of law. To follow this presumption means to refrain from naming the alleged perpetrators publicly. The Council may, however, bring those names to the attention of competent authorities, e. g. the ICC or national criminal courts.<a href="#_ftn18">[18]</a></p>
<p><strong>b)    The Applicable Legal Framework</strong></p>
<p>14  Having established the mandate, one must turn to the legal framework for the Commission’s report. Regarding human rights law, Libya acceeded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights<a href="#_ftn19">[19]</a> in May 1970.<a href="#_ftn20">[20]</a> Libya ratified the African Charter on Human and Peoples&#8217; Rights<a href="#_ftn21">[21]</a> with effect of June 1987 and it ratified the Convention against Torture<a href="#_ftn22">[22]</a> in May 1989.</p>
<p>15  Libya is state party to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 as well as to the first two additional protocols of 1977. It ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child of 20 November 1989<a href="#_ftn23">[23]</a> as well as the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict of 25 May 2000.<a href="#_ftn24">[24]</a></p>
<p>16  This legal framework may be modified. Human rights law provides for an derogation from the obligations in “time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation”. However, such a state of emergency must be officially proclaimed. Libya has neither under Gaddafi nor under NTC-rule made any such proclamation.<a href="#_ftn25">[25]</a> Thus, human rights law applies in its entirety, safe for the lex specialis of international humanitarian law.</p>
<p>17  Libya has neither signed nor ratified the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Thus, only customary international criminal law is applicable. Since the Security Council’s referral of the situation in Libya to the ICC, the Rome State applies entirely since 26 February 2011 and in its customay law nature from 17 February to 26 February 2011.<a href="#_ftn26">[26]</a></p>
<p>18  The resolution establishing the ICIL speaks about the mandate <em>ratione materiae</em>, but remains silent on the mandate in its temporal, local and personal regards. This, however, does not mean that the mandate is unlimited. By interpreting the resolution “in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose” as required by art. 31 (1) Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties one can limit the mandate of the ICIL in those regards.</p>
<p><strong>2)      The Mandate <em>ratione personae</em></strong></p>
<p>19  At the outset the Commission noted that one must keep in mind the “damage caused to the fabric of the society by decades of corruption, serious human rights violations and sustained repression of any opposition” by the Gaddafi regime.<a href="#_ftn27">[27]</a></p>
<p>However, the Commission was not restricted to only investigate violations by the Gaddafi regime. It was also tasked to take a look at the rebel’s (subsequently becoming the National Transitional Council’s [NTC] and new Libyan government) actions, for the mandate did not include any restrictions regarding the parties to the conflict. This is particular important since the ICIL has noted that “few officials spoken to by the Commission have demonstrated a real understanding of basic legal and human rights standards”<a href="#_ftn28">[28]</a> – entailing both old an new officials.</p>
<p>20  The jurisdiction <em>rationae personae</em> is not restricted in regard to parties to the conflict. By the nature of human rights law however, the mandate of the Commission is restricted to those persons who can actually violate human rights law. And only those are able to violate human rights law who are bound by human rights law. As well be seen <em>infra</em>, this is not easy to determine.<a href="#_ftn29">[29]</a></p>
<p><strong>3)      The Mandate <em>ratione tempore</em></strong></p>
<p>21  More troubling is that no temporal restriction was taken. Keeping in mind the vantage point of the ICIL’s investigation, meaning one must remember that “decades of corruption, serious human rights violations and sustained repression of any opposition” damaged the “fabric of the society”,<a href="#_ftn30">[30]</a> what stops the Commission from coming to terms with the past and Gaddafi’s rule over Libya?</p>
<p>22  The context matters, and that is what stops the commission. Para. 11 needs to be read in context with the entire resolution. The draft-resolution strongly comdemns “the recent extremely grave human rights violations committed in Libya”,<a href="#_ftn31">[31]</a> while the adopted resolution strongly condemns “the recent gross and systematic human rights violations committed in Libya.”<a href="#_ftn32">[32]</a> As can be clearly seen, common denominator to both texts is the special emphasis on <em>recent</em> violations.</p>
<p>23  This is supported by recourse to the circumstances of the resolution’s conclusion, as envisaged by art. 32 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The Human Rights Council established the ICIL during its fifthteenth special session. This session convened at the request of Hungary on behalf of the member states of the European Union as well as several other states. The request was filed on 23 February 2011,<a href="#_ftn33">[33]</a> just days after the beginning of widespread protests against the Gaddafi-regime in Libya which marked the beginning of the civil war. And while the exact date on which the civil war in Libya broke out is yet to be determined, one may safely asssume that this non-international armed conflict in the sense of international humanitarian law started between 20 and 25 February 2011.<a href="#_ftn34">[34]</a></p>
<p>24  The ICIL organizes the conflict in Libya into three phases. The beginning of the conflict on 15 February 2011 is considered the start of the first phase. It includes the peaceful protests and demonstration against the Gaddafi-government. The second phase covers the four armed conflicts beginning in the end of February 2011. In more detail, these conflicts are in chronological order the non-international armed conflict between the Gaddafi government and rebel forces (also called <em>thuwar</em> forces), the international armed conflict between the Gaddafi government and NATO forces, the international armed conflict between  the Gaddafi government on one side and rebel forces fighting alongside NATO forces on the other side, and, after the recognition of the NTC as the representaton of the Libyan people by the United Nations,<a href="#_ftn35">[35]</a> the non-international armed conflict between the new Libyan government and NATO forces against forces loyal to the old Gaddafi government. The third phase covers the events from the end of the conflicts in October 2011 until the submission of the final report in March 2012.</p>
<p>25  In this article, all three phases are mentioned as the ‘conflict’, while phase two will be referred to as ‘armed conflict(s)’.</p>
<p><strong>4)      The Mandate <em>ratione loci</em></strong></p>
<p>26  In local regard, the mandate is limited to the territory of Libya. This is clear from the wording of the resolution. If one interprets the resolution in good faith with an emphasis on the object and purpose of the resolution, one comes to the conclusion that it is of no relevance where an act was committed as long as the violation of a human right took place in Libya. It would be ineffective if the Commission had to first establish whether or not an violation was the result of a suitable act. Thus, the mandate includes violations of human rights by air forces conducting strikes on Libyan territory as well as rockets launched from warships well off the Libyan coast.</p>
<p>27  Having established a broad mandate of the ICIL, this analysis will summarize the findings of the Commission before these findings will be commented.</p>
<p><strong>III  The Commission’s Findings</strong></p>
<p>28  First, the ICIL noted that Gaddafi forces used excessive force against demonstrators within the first phase of the conflict. It found that firing on protesters was excessive in relation to the threat posed, that it violated art. 6, 9, 19, 21 ICCPR, and that the crime of murder was committed during these days.<a href="#_ftn36">[36]</a> Although the the Commission found “sufficient evidence of an attack on civilians that was both widdespread and systematic”,<a href="#_ftn37">[37]</a> it refrains from calling the violence by its name: These actions are crimes against humanity.<a href="#_ftn38">[38]</a></p>
<p>29  In a second point, the ICIL reports that unlawful killings were commited, by Gaddafi forces as well as rebel forces. These killings were committed against suspected enemies, detainees or persons who fell victims to armed robberies.<a href="#_ftn39">[39]</a> It is noteworthy that the rebels committed unlawful killings just days after the start of the protests, still before the start of the non-international armed conflict.<a href="#_ftn40">[40]</a> the Commission is alarmed by the fact that “the scale of executions by Qadhafi security forces increased as their defeat neared.”<a href="#_ftn41">[41]</a></p>
<p>30  Both domestic parties to the conflict detaineed several hundred or thousand persons arbitrarly during the armed conflict between the two.<a href="#_ftn42">[42]</a> This was done in violation of the human rights obligations of both actors.<a href="#_ftn43">[43]</a> The ICIL emphasized that <em>thuwar</em> forces applied a “presumption of guilt”.<a href="#_ftn44">[44]</a> In addition, numerous incidents of enforced disappearances have occurred.<a href="#_ftn45">[45]</a> A disquieting picture of today’s Libya is drawn by the Commission when it observes that around eight detention facilities out of 60 known locations are under the control of the current government.<a href="#_ftn46">[46]</a></p>
<p>31  Detainees were subjected to torture and other forms of ill-treatment, both from Gaddafi forces as well as rebel forces. The situation of the still detained persons worsens as of today.<a href="#_ftn47">[47]</a> The ICIL notes, moreover, that torture and other forms of ill-treatment that have occurred may consitute war crimes or crimes against humanity.<a href="#_ftn48">[48]</a></p>
<p>32  Some particular groups were targeted during all phases of the crisis by <em>thuwar</em> forces. This includes unlawful killings, attacks on civilians and other protected persons and objects, pillage, persecution as defined in art. 7 (2) ICC-Statute, and forcible transfer of the population.<a href="#_ftn49">[49]</a> One example of this practice by <em>thuwar</em> forces is analyzed <em>infra</em> (IV4).</p>
<p>33  Two primary patterns of sexual violence occurred during the crisis in Libya, the ICIL affirmed. Victims of Gaddafi forces were either assaulted because of their alleged allegience to the <em>thuwar</em> or while being in detention.<a href="#_ftn50">[50]</a> While this is true, the ICIL blames the “prevailing culture of silence, the lack of reliable statistics, the evident use of torture to extract confessions, and the political sensitivity of the issue” for making sexual violence the “most difficult one for the Commission to investigate and on which to formulate conclusions.”<a href="#_ftn51">[51]</a>. Nevertheless, it did not find evidence to substantiate claims of “widespread sexual violence or a systematic attack or overall policy against a civilian population such as to amount to crimes against humanity.”<a href="#_ftn52">[52]</a> The alleged order of <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> to distribute Viagra in order to facilitate rape and sexual violence by his forces could not be affirmed by the ICIL.<a href="#_ftn53">[53]</a></p>
<p>34  In another aspect the ICIL established that both domestic parties to the conflict committed attacks on civilians and other protected persons and objects in violation of international humanitarian law.<a href="#_ftn54">[54]</a></p>
<p>35  This, in contrast, is not true in respect to NATO’s operation ‘Unified Protector’. The ICIL recognized the “large numbers of sorties and the proportionally low number of civilian casualties in comparison to other campaigns” and determined that the campaign was “conducted with precision weapons” and that it “demonstrated concern to avoid civilian casualties. The vast majority of airstrikes hit military targets outside of population centres and did not endanger civilians.” Only in respect to some incidents the ICIL could not determine “whether NATO took all feasible precautions to protect civilians at these sites.“<a href="#_ftn55">[55]</a></p>
<p>36  Keeping in mind the different treaty obligations of states prohibiting certain weapons, the ICIL did not find any evidence giving proof of the use of prohibited weapons by any party to the conflict. The ICIL did not assess whether or not weapons such as cluster munitions and landmines were used according to international humanitarian law in every instance.</p>
<p>37  While no party to the conflict used mercenaries in the sense of the UN International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries,<a href="#_ftn56">[56]</a> there is strong evidence to suggest that Gaddafi forces recruited and uses soldiers under the age of 18, thus violating Libya’s obligations under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict.</p>
<p>38  In the last section, the ICIL addressed questions of accountability for violations of international law. The report includes a very comprehensive assessment of the Libyan legal system. According to the ICIL, neither are the institutions (lack of independence, lack of confidence by the people)<a href="#_ftn57">[57]</a> nor is the substantial law (no implementation of international crimes)<a href="#_ftn58">[58]</a> fit to process the conflict. In addition, if applied at all, the law is not applied equally to both parties to the conflict. It needs to be highlighted that almost no <em>thuwar</em> troops have been held responsible. There is no evidence suggesting that the current government of Libya is eager to hold these forces accountable.<a href="#_ftn59">[59]</a> In contrast, there are more than 8.000 detainees (alleged Gaddafi troops) who await trial or release.  The Libyan legal system, void of the rule of law for decades, has no ressources to deal with this amount of people.<a href="#_ftn60">[60]</a></p>
<p>39  The Commission closes its report with several recommendations for all actors in the crisis. Most importantly, the ICIL demands better compliance by Libya with its international legal obligations, especially in regard to detainees. The Commission demands timely improvements in regard to the legal system in general and to the accountability mechanisms in particular. It also calls on the international community as well as the United Nations to support Libya wherever possible.<a href="#_ftn61">[61]</a></p>
<p><strong>IV   Assessment of the Commission’s Findings</strong></p>
<p>40  In conclusion, one can agree with most of the report. The ICIL has provided a comprehensive review that addresses most of the important aspects. However, some crucial points remain unresolved by the report. Thus, these points wil be addressed and commented in the following section.</p>
<p><strong>1)     The Three-Phased-Approach of the Conflict</strong></p>
<p>41  As stated above the ICIL used a three-phased-approached to structure the conflict and to identify the applicable law.<a href="#_ftn62">[62]</a> This is of mayor importance, because international humanitarian law only applies in times of armed conflict.</p>
<p>42  While the academic scholar has to rely on public documents and news reports, the ICIL had wider resources to exactly determine the point in time when a conflict commenced or closed. However, it missed the opportunity to give precise dates for the beginning and the end of the armed conflicts that took place. It almost sounds as if the ICIL excused this lapse with recourse to other authorities who also declined to answer this question. Most importantly, even the prosecutor of the ICC has yet to specify his claim that “since the end of February there has been an armed conflict in Libya.”.<a href="#_ftn63">[63]</a></p>
<p>43  Nevertheless, the ICIL tries to narrow down the exact date and concludes that this is to be found close to the end of February 2011. This reasoning can be followed without further ado.<a href="#_ftn64">[64]</a></p>
<p><strong>2)    Obligations of Non-State-Actors</strong></p>
<p>44  The ICIL claims that international humanitarian law binds all parties to a non-international armed conflict and that non-state actors must “respect the fundamental human rights of persons in areas where such actors exercise de facto control.”<a href="#_ftn65">[65]</a> Neither in its first nor in the final report is a sufficient legal explanation for this rather bold statement given. This is troubling, for major parts of the report are based on human rights obligations by non-state actors, particularly because during the course of the conflict two non-state-actors were involved. And while the Commission’s findings in the substantial parts can be shared almost without comment, the reasoning merits attention and needs more detail.</p>
<p>45  In principle, international law only binds those who enjoy legal personality under international law. Many examples of legal subjects have been developed by state pratice.</p>
<p><strong>a)    International Humanitarian Law</strong></p>
<p>46  State practice of the law of non-international armed conflict obliges the non-state actor to adhere to the rules. This is clear from common art. 3 Geneva Conventions and identical customary international law. A non-state actor receives legal personality <em>uno actu</em> with the commencement of an armed conflict. As soon as the respective criteria are fulfilled, international humanitarian law applies.<a href="#_ftn66">[66]</a> And this law not only recognizes a non-state actor as a legal person but also as bound by international humanitarian law. There is no mere legal personality without any rights or obligations, the cup of legal personality is always filled with some rights and duties under international law.</p>
<p>47  This is no violation of the <em>pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt </em>principle as enshrined in art. 34 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. This principle does not sapply. First, states and non-state actors are not equal. States are original subjects of international law, while non-state actors derive their legal personality from the will of the states. Second, without the treaty conferring the duty to a non-state actor, there would not be a subject of international law. In other words, if the principle was applied to its full extent, it could almost never be applied in practice because states would have to create a legal person without any duty. This is neither practicable nor is it done. Moreover, there is no doubt that <em>ius cogens</em> applies to every actor in international law. Otherwise the concept would not make any sense.</p>
<p>48  Thus, the non-state actor in an armed conflict is bound by international humanitarian law. In addition, it is bound by <em>ius cogens</em>.</p>
<p><strong>b)    Human Rights Law</strong></p>
<p>49  Part of <em>ius cogens</em> are also some fundamental human rights, namely the prohibitions of slavery, racial discrimination and torture<a href="#_ftn67">[67]</a> and probably also the right to a fair trial.<a href="#_ftn68">[68]</a> But are non-state actors bound by human rights that do not constitute <em>ius cogens</em>?</p>
<p>50  Human rights are inalienable rights of all human beings that derive from human dignity.<a href="#_ftn69">[69]</a> Thus, human rights treaties are not merely regular treaties between states regarding their own rights and obligations. These treaties do not only oblige states in respect to each other, but in regard to human beings. In addition to this human dignity approach, non-state actors are bound by other reasoning as well.</p>
<p>51  Human rights protect the individual in respect to actions of a state. Their main aim and historical first function was to provide a shield against a powerful Leviathan. But this protection is limited to those individuals “subject to (a State Party’s) jurisdiction” (art. 2 [1] ICCPR) – ‘jurisdiction’ being the decisive element.</p>
<p>52  This concept, based on the sovereign equality of states,<a href="#_ftn70">[70]</a> is primarily territorial.<a href="#_ftn71">[71]</a> Everyone on the territory of a state party is entitled to protection according to the respective treaties. However, this territorial approach does not mean that human rights law is only applicable to the national territory of a state party. In the words of the ECtHR: “The concept of ‘jurisdiction’ under Article 1 of the Convention (art. 1) is not restricted to the national territory of the Contracting States. Accordingly, the responsibility of Contracting States can be involved by acts and omissions of their authorities which produce effects outside their own territory.”<a href="#_ftn72">[72]</a> Thus, the term ‘jurisdiction’ is neither equivalent to nor interchangeable with ‘attributability’<a href="#_ftn73">[73]</a> or ‘territory’. But because these obligations are primarily territorial, other bases of jurisdiction are exceptional and require a special justification in the particular circumstances of each case.<a href="#_ftn74">[74]</a> Case law has identified two exceptions; one is determined by a spatial approach and the other by a personal approach to ‘jurisdiction’, each demanding ‘effective control’ over territory or, respectively, a person. Whether or not a state exercises effective overall control is a matter of fact, not a matter of law.<a href="#_ftn75">[75]</a> The ECtHR has held a state responsible “when the respondent State, through the effective control of the relevant territory and its inhabitants abroad as a consequence of military occupation or through the consent, invitation or acquiescence of the Government of that territory, exercises all or some of the public powers normally to be exercised by that Government.”<a href="#_ftn76">[76]</a></p>
<p>53  All aspects taken together, the protective dimension of human rights law and the pivotal concept of ‘jurisdiction’, based on the human dignity approach, ultimately lead one to start from the perspective of the protected individual. It is crucial to take the individual’s interests into account, in order to assess who is bound by human rights law. And for the individual the character of the human rights violator as a state or a non-state actor is of no importance. Consequently, non-state actors are bound by human rights law when, through effective control of the relevant territory and its inhabitants (e. g. as a consequence of military action), exercises all or some of the public powers normally to be exercised by the government of the territory. In these cases, the non-state actor appears and acts like a state actor. This is especially evident if the criteria of art. 1 (2) Ap 2 are fulfilled.</p>
<p>54  To repeat, the ICIL stated that the former rebel forces in Libya, who later on became the new Libyan governement, were obliged to “respect the fundamental human rights of persons in areas where such actors exercise de facto control.”<a href="#_ftn77">[77]</a> This conclusion differs only in a minor way from the proposal submitted here.</p>
<p>55  This reasoning applies to customary human rights law. It cannot be applied to treaty law, for non-state actors cannot become a party to these instruments.<a href="#_ftn78">[78]</a></p>
<p><strong>3)    The Deaths of <em>Muammar</em> <em>al-Gaddafi</em> and <em>Mutassim </em><em>al-Gaddafi</em></strong></p>
<p><strong>a)    The Deaths as Unlawful Killings</strong></p>
<p>56  On 20 October 2011 <em>thuwar</em> forces captured <em>Mua</em><em>mmar al-Gaddafi</em> and his son <em>Mutassim al-Gaddafi</em> separately. Both were alive and had minor injuries.<a href="#_ftn79">[79]</a> <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> was put into an ambulance and driven to Misrata. However, he as well as <em>Mutassim al-Gaddafi</em> died within a few hours in <em>thuwar</em> capture.<a href="#_ftn80">[80]</a> The ICIL had not received any first-hand account of the two deaths and declined to confirm the deaths as unlawful killings.<a href="#_ftn81">[81]</a></p>
<p>57  One wonders why the Commission is so reluctant in that regard. Taken into account together, the hard evidence as well as the circumstancial evidence raise the strong suspicion that both deaths were unlawful killings that may be considered war crimes under art. 8 (2) (c) (iv) ICC-Statute and art. 8 (2) (e) (ix) ICC-Statute. This merits a deeper analysis.</p>
<p>58  The ICIL established that <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> and his son <em>Mutassim al-Gaddafi</em> were alive when they were captured.  Hours after their capture, both detainees were dead. The Commission claimed that because it could neither find any eyewitnesses for the actual death nor could it determine the cause of death, no conclusion could be drawn. In doing so, the Commission neglects that all the evindence clearly points in one direction. First, there is an interview with a young man who claimes that he shot <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> in the head and abdomen.<a href="#_ftn82">[82]</a> His claim is consistent with the report of the official autopsy,<a href="#_ftn83">[83]</a> so that it cannot be dismissed as bragging. Second, one must keep in mind that <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> and <em>Mutassim al-Gaddafi</em> were both detainees of <em>thuwar</em> forces. Under no circumstances may detainees be killed (cf. art. 3 [1] [a] Geneva Conventions, art. 4 [1] [a] AP 2), at least not without any previous judgment by a regularly constituted court (cf. art. 8 [2] [c] [iv], art. 8 [2] [e] [ix] ICC-Statute). At the same time, there is no claim that neither one of the detaineed tried to escape or posed a danger to his capturers. Third, the ICIL itself states that it is “clear (is) that Qadhafi was alive when he was taken into custody and placed in an ambulance in Sirte by members of the Misrata <em>thuwar </em>and was seemingly dead when the ambulance arrived in Misrata.”<a href="#_ftn84">[84]</a> How this alone does not raise any suspicion remains the secret of the Commission. Even if one takes into account that the Commission was not provided access to the autopsy-report, taken into account all (circumstancial) evidence, there is at least the strong suspicion of war crimes. Unfortunately, the Commission could not bring up the courage to say so.</p>
<p>59  True, the ICIL was not mandated to support any criminal convinction.<a href="#_ftn85">[85]</a> However, it was mandated to investigate alleged violations of human rights law and international humanitarian law. And there is a strong suspicion that human rights law and international humanitarian law were violated in regard to <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> and <em>Mutassim al-Gaddafi</em> – and a strong suspicion is all the ICIL needed.</p>
<p><strong>b)    The NATO-Attack on <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em></strong></p>
<p>60  Prior to his capture by <em>thuwar</em> forces, <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> tried to escape the city of Sirte in a heavily armed convoy of around 50 vehicles.<a href="#_ftn86">[86]</a> The approximately 200 men, together with women, children and wounded men, traveled in 50 vehicles east on the main road. Soon, they ran into a rebel ambush. During the firefight several men were injured and numerous cars were damaged. After the fight the convoy split up. “At this point a Toyota Corolla in front of Muammar Qadhafi’s green Landcruiser was hit by a NATO airstrike, probably by a Predator drone, and exploded. The explosion set off the airbags in Qadhafi’s car.”<a href="#_ftn87">[87]</a> In the following minutes, Gaddafi took “refuge in a house as some of their bodyguards engaged in a fire fight with the rebel positions. Moments after Muammar Qadhafi entered the house, an airstrike hit the vehicles, setting off secondary explosions. The strike and subsequent explosions left many wounded lying on the ground. At this point the <em>thuwar</em> began shelling the house where Muammar Qadhafi was hiding. Mutassim Qadhafi took approximately 20 fighters and left to look for vehicles. Muammar Qadhafi reportedly wanted to stay and fight but was persuaded to escape.”<a href="#_ftn88">[88]</a> Subsequently, <em>thuwar</em> forces captured Gaddafi and the above mentioned events took place.</p>
<p>61  The ICIL did not addressed the question of whether or not the NATO-airstrike was legal, because it had no mandate to do so. Hence, it will be done here.</p>
<p>62  The Security Council authorized states to take all necessary measures to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, while excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory.<a href="#_ftn89">[89]</a> After the first days of military operations by several states, NATO assumed control of these operation.<a href="#_ftn90">[90]</a> These operations were limited by international humanitarian law and – maybe! – by human rights law.<a href="#_ftn91">[91]</a> It seems as if the attack itself was in conformity with both regimes.</p>
<p>63  The dilemma is the following. <em>Gaddafi</em> was the <em>de-facto</em>-head of Libya, he was in the position to give orders to the police and the armed forces. Put it bluntly, the gross and systematic human rights violations committed in Libya were committed because of his orders:<a href="#_ftn92">[92]</a> <em>Gaddafi</em> was the state of Libya.<a href="#_ftn93">[93]</a> There is a possibility that targeting <em>Gaddafi</em> would have stopped the conflict in Libya, consequently protecting civilians as envisaged by Res. 1973 (2011). On the other hand, some states wanted to achieve a regime change in Libya.<a href="#_ftn94">[94]</a> Such a regime change, in contrast, was not mandated by Res. 1973 (2011). In addition, international law prohibits the intervention of a foreign state in the internal affairs of another state.<a href="#_ftn95">[95]</a> Although it is not prohibited to criticize internal politics of another State, if this criticism is substantiated by facts,<a href="#_ftn96">[96]</a> the organization of its political system is part of the <em>domaine réservé</em> of a state and thus protected by the prohibition of intervention.<a href="#_ftn97">[97]</a> Thus, regime change by force is prohibited by international law.</p>
<p>64  Crucial is, that the killing of <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> would have been lawful if it was done in order to protect civilians, but unlawful if it was done in order to achieve regime change. But this does not mean that the killing is unlawful. Both events, meaning the stop of the conflict as well as regime change, were two sides of the same coin. The killing of <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> entails regime change, even if done solely to protect civilian population. Both aspects cannot be separated. This is unfortunate, for it combines the honorable goal of protection civilians with the unlawful wish for regime change.</p>
<p>65  In conclusion, the attack of NATO on the Gaddafi convoy was mandated by Res. 1973 (2011). Whether or not it was within the lines of international humanitarian law, meaning especially the rules of targeting, cannot be assessed.</p>
<p><strong>4)    Targeting of the <em>Tawergha</em> Community</strong></p>
<p>66  Several communities have been targeted by <em>thuwar</em> forces. One example is the treatment of the Tawergha community.<a href="#_ftn98">[98]</a> Tawergha is a city to the south-east of Misrata, one stronghold of the rebels. In the course of the conflict, the relationship between the people of both cities deteriorated. This was due to several factors, including the economic capacities as well as the ethnic background of the respective population. In the course of the conflict, Misrata became scene of the “conflict’s fiercest fighting.”<a href="#_ftn99">[99]</a> Some members of the Gaddafi forces were residents of Tawergha. After the <em>thuwar</em> gained control over Misrata and fought back the Gaddafi forces, some of the latter retreated to Tawergha. The Misrata <em>thuwar</em> in turn attacked Tawergha, using weapons which could not be directed towards specific targets. When the thuwar finally succeeded and took over Tawergha, many residents fled town. The remaining residents stated that they were threatened and forced to leave the city. <em>Thuwar</em> forces conducted house-to-house raids, any male resident encountered was either beaten or detained. One female resident gave account on how she was humiliated by <em>thuwar</em> forces while the rebels insulted the Tawerghans as dogs who did not deserve to live. Libyan authorities have stated that Tawerghans left “perhaps out of fear, due to the crimes they committed.”<a href="#_ftn100">[100]</a> The former Primeminister of the NTC claimed that “regarding Tawergha, my own viewpoint is that nobody has the right to interfere in this matter except the people of Misrata.”<a href="#_ftn101">[101]</a> In the following days, <em>thuwar</em> forces looted and destroyed houses in the city. Until today, Tawergha remains an empty town. Residents of Tawergha were followed on their flight by <em>thuwar</em> forces. The ICIL gives an account of how Tawerghans were not safe from harrassment, including attacks and arrests, regardless of their whereabouts. The Tawergha community was not the only community targeted by <em>thuwar</em> forces. The pattern explained above can also be seen in other cities and communities.</p>
<p>67  The ICIL concludes that during the battle for Tawergha international humanitarian law was violated. Most prominently, the <em>thuwar</em> conducted indiscriminate attacks.<a href="#_ftn102">[102]</a> In addition, human rights law was violated. The report states that numerous Tawerghans have been arrested for unkown reasons. Some of those arrested were tortured and some have not been seen since. The city has been looted and destroyed since the <em>thuwar</em> assumed control of the area. Finally the ICIL points out that these actions may constitute war crimes and crimes against humanity.<a href="#_ftn103">[103]</a></p>
<p>68  The findings of the Commission can be shared. The facts gathered by the ICIL give an account of how the perceived enemy was targeted and treated even after <em>thuwar</em> forces gained a military advantage. In other words, what happened in Tawergha and elsewhere is ethnic cleansing. It is troubling to see the lack of respect for international law by those responsible for these actions.</p>
<p><strong>5)    The Mahari Hotel Killings</strong></p>
<p>69  In October 2011, close to the end of the armed conflict in Libya, a large number of bodies were discovered in the Mahari Hotel in Sirte. The bodies showed signs of violent deaths; some victims had their hands bound, some victims were inhabitants of Sirte, some were civilians and some were fighters.<a href="#_ftn104">[104]</a> The hotel itself was used as base for <em>thuwar</em> operations in Sirte. The ICIL refrains from giving a final account of what happened and how the killings could be assessed under international law. However, in its general conclusion on unlawful killings, the Commission suggests that killing fighters <em>hors de combat</em> or civilians may amount to war crimes. Consequently, this applies to the Mahari Hotel killings as well.</p>
<p>70 Again, the Mahari Hotel killings is one particular incident of violence that amounts to a breach of international law. Other instances can be found as well.</p>
<p>71  The Mahari Hotel killings as well as the targeting of several communities (the Tawergha community being the most prominent example) and the killings of both <em>Muammar</em> <em>al-Gaddafi</em> and <em>Mutassim al-Gaddafi</em> are likely candidates for further investigation by the ICC. The Commission has provided an excellent account of what happened and of the legal consequences of these actions. Now, it is for the ICC to take up the results and finally investigate actions by rebel forces during the conflict. Otherwise the ICC would repeat the Libyan legal system’s mistake of focusing on crimes of Gaddafi forces.</p>
<p><strong>6)    Detainees</strong></p>
<p>72  The ICIL’s report explains in all detail the situation of the detainees in Libya. A special emphasis is put on the fact that these situations must be improved. Here the ICIL keeps in line with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), which recently stated that “international humanitarian law, in its current state, provides a suitable legal framework for regulating the conduct of parties to armed conflicts.” But, in almost all cases, “what is required to improve the victims’ situation is stricter compliance with that framework, rather than the adoption of new rules. If all the parties concerned showed perfect regard for international humanitarian law, most current humanitarian issues would not exist.” Thus, “all attempts to strengthen humanitarian law should therefore build on the existing legal framework.”<a href="#_ftn105">[105]</a> The situation in Libya is a highly illustrative example of the ICRC’s call.</p>
<p><strong>7)     NATO’s Operation ‘Unified Protector’ and Human Rights Law</strong></p>
<p>73  As stated above, the ICIL’s mandate included actions by foreign forces during the international armed conflict. It is regrettable that NATO did not provide sufficient information to the ICIL in order to enable the Commission to fully analyse NATO’s actions. More troubling, however, is another aspect of NATO’s involvement and the ICIL’s failure to address the issues.</p>
<p>74  While the ICIL states that the legal framework for NATO’s involvement is “based upon principles of international humanitarian law”,<a href="#_ftn106">[106]</a> it fails to mention human rights law. Given that the territorial scope of application of human rights law is disputed, the Commission should have addressed this issue.</p>
<p>75  As stated above, human rights law applies extraterritorially when a state exercises jurisdiction, meaning effective control. While the predominant view has held that mere aerial bombings do not constitute jurisdiction,<a href="#_ftn107">[107]</a> new jurisprudence by the ECtHR<a href="#_ftn108">[108]</a> points in another direction. It may be maintained that under the new jurisprudence such aerial bombings may constitute jurisdiction. Legal scholarship is still divided on the question of whether or not this judgment changes the concept of ‘jurisdiction’ under human rights instruments.<a href="#_ftn109">[109]</a> Again, the ICIL missed an opportunity to take a stand and to facilitate the discussion regarding this question.<a href="#_ftn110">[110]</a></p>
<p>76  Human Rights Watch has recently concurred with the ICIL’s findings and demanded, that NATO paid “suitable compensation” for the civilian victims of its air campaign against Libya.<a href="#_ftn111">[111]</a></p>
<p><strong>8)    Accountability and the International Criminal Court</strong></p>
<p>77 All in all, the report exposes on twohundred pages the terrible compliance with the law by two parties to the conflict. Consequently, better compliance is badly needed. This does not only hold true for future conflicts in other countries, but for Libya as well. Perpetrators of serious crimes cannot go unpunished.<a href="#_ftn112">[112]</a></p>
<p>78  The ICIL’s assessment of the Libyan legal system cannot be admired enough. The Commission evaluates the law and its institutions from every angle, it evaluates the existing substantial law and critizes the unequal application of the existing framework. Very alarmingly is the total lack of accountability for violations of human rights law as well as international humanitarian law.</p>
<p>79  Why does this merit special attention? Because it shows that the current legal system of Libya is neither willing nor able to carry out any investigation or prosecution of alleged crimes. Any case before the ICC, which already has jurisdiction over the situation in Libya since 15 February 2011,<a href="#_ftn113">[113]</a> will <em>prima facie</em> be admissible.<a href="#_ftn114">[114]</a> The international community can therefore provide the missing accountability mechanisms, this is the <em>raison d’êtr</em><em>e</em> of the ICC. The ICIL’s analysis is so well crafted that the Office of the Prosecutor as well as the chambers of the ICC could almost copy &amp; paste the report into its applications and decisions.</p>
<p><strong>V      Conclusion</strong></p>
<p>80  The ICIL-Report is a thouroughly researched analysis of the situation in Libya. In an almost flawless manner it addresses the various legal issues of the conflict. Not surprisingly, it fulfills its mandate in an exemplary fashion.</p>
<p>81  However, the Commission missed some opportunities to clarify matters in legal and factual terms. Most importantly, it did not take stand on legal obligations of non-state-actors, extraterritorial application of human rights law and the exact dates of the armed conflicts’ commencement and ceasation.</p>
<p>82  Nevertheless, the report sets the standard for future investigations. It clearly shows which issues must be addressed within the next months, it provides basic facts and basic legal analysis for the international community’s involvement in the reconstruction of the Libyan state. In addition, it provides the ICC with valuable informations to conduct further criminal investigations. The ICIL has shown that the Libyan conflict of 2011 is far away from being resolved.</p>
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<hr size="1" />
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<p><a href="#_ftnref1">[1]</a> Report of the Human Rights Council on its fifteenth special session, 25 February 2011, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/S-15/1, at para. 11.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref2">[2]</a> United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry to investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, 1 June 2011, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/17/44, subsequently referred to as ICIL First Report.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref3">[3]</a> United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Libya, 2 March 2012, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/19/68, subsequently referred to as ICIL-Report.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref4">[4]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 10.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref5">[5]</a> Report of the Human Rights Council on its fifteenth special session, 25 February 2011, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/S-15/1, at para. 11.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref6">[6]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 3.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref7">[7]</a> Further reference provided in <em>R. Kolb, </em>Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, in: R. Wolfrum (Ed.), <em>The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</em>, Oxford 2008, online edition, (www.mpepil.com), at para. 30; and in <em>S. Sivakumaran</em>, International Humanitarian Law, in: D. Moeckli / S. Shah / S. Sivakumaran (eds), International Human Rights Law, Oxford 2010, at p. 530 et seq.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref8">[8]</a> ICJ, <em>Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons</em>, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Rep. 1996, at para. 25; <em>Y. Dinstein</em>, The Conduct of Hostilities under the International Law of Armed Conflict, Cambridge 2010, at para. 44 et seq.; <em>Y. Dinstein</em>, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation, Cambridge 2009, at para. 195 et seq.; <em>J. Kleffner</em>, Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law: General Issues, in: T. Gill / D. Fleck, The Handbook of the International Law of Military Operations, Oxford 2010, at para. 4.02; <em>E.-C. Gillard</em>, International Humanitarian Law and Extraterritorial State Conduct, in: F. Coomans/M. Kamminga (eds.), Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Treaties, Antwerp 2004, p. 25 et seq, at p. 36 et seq.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref9">[9]</a> <em>R. Kolb, </em>Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, in: R. Wolfrum (Ed.), <em>The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</em>, Oxford 2008, online edition, (www.mpepil.com), at paras. 35 et seq.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref10">[10]</a> <em>R. Kolb, </em>Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, in: R. Wolfrum (Ed.), <em>The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</em>, Oxford 2008, online edition, (www.mpepil.com), at para. 44. <em>Y. Dinstein</em>, The Conduct of Hostilities under the International Law of Armed Conflict, Cambridge 2010, at para. 60, seems to subscribe to this view.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref11">[11]</a> ICIL First Report, at para. 4.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref12">[12]</a> <em>N. Blokker</em>, International Organizations or Institutions, Implied Powers, in: R. Wolfrum (Ed.), <em>The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</em>, Oxford 2008, online edition, (www.mpepil.com), at para. 3.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref13">[13]</a> <em>K. Skubiszewski</em>, Implied Powers of International Organizations, in: Y. Dinstein (Ed.), International Law at a Time of Perplexity: Essays in Honour of Shabtai Rosenne, Dordrecht 1989, p. 855 et seq., at p. 860.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref14">[14]</a> UN Doc. A/Res./60/251 of 3 April 2006.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref15">[15]</a> General Assembly Res. 60/251, at para. 2.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref16">[16]</a> General Assembly Res. 60/251, at para. 3.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref17">[17]</a> General Assembly Res. 60/251, at para. 5 (f).</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref18">[18]</a> The ICIL noted that it intended to refer the names to competent national and international authorities, cf. ICIL-Report, at para. 760.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref19">[19]</a> International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 19 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171, subsequently referred to as ICCPR.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref20">[20]</a> References to Libya being a state party to the respective instruments are taken from http://treaties.un.org/.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref21">[21]</a> African Charter on Human and Peoples&#8217; Rights of 27 June 1981, 1520 UNTS 217, subsequently referred to as Banjul-Charter.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref22">[22]</a> Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 10 December 1984, 1465 UNTS 85, subsequently referred to as CAT.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref23">[23]</a> 1577 UNTS 3.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref24">[24]</a> 2173 UNTS 222.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref25">[25]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 16.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref26">[26]</a> <em>M. Milanovic, </em>Is the Rome Statute Binding on Individuals? (And Why We Should Care), Journal of International Criminal Justice 9 (2011), p. 25 et seq. Cf. <em>R. Frau</em>, Die Überweisung der Lage in Libyen an den Internationalen Strafgerichtshof durch den Sicherheitsrat der Vereinten Nationen, in: Archiv für Völkerrecht 49 (2011), p. 276-309, at p. 295-302, for a more detailed analysis of the issue.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref27">[27]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 10.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref28">[28]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 12.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref29">[29]</a> Cf. infra IV2) Obligations on Non-State-Actors.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref30">[30]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 10.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref31">[31]</a> UN Doc. No. A/HRC/69/S-15/1 of 24 February 2011, at para. 1.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref32">[32]</a> UN Doc. No. A/HRC/S-15/1, at para. 1.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref33">[33]</a> UN Doc. No. A/HRC/69/S-15/1 of 24 February 2011.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref34">[34]</a> ICIL First Report, at para. 37 et seq.; <em>M. Brunner</em>/<em>R. Frau</em>, Die Maßnahmen des Sicherheitsrates der Vereinten Nationen in Bezug auf Libyen 2011, in: Humanitäres Völkerrecht &#8211; Informationsschriften 2011, p. 192 et seq., at p. 195.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref35">[35]</a> UN Doc. A/RES/66/1, Meeting Record UN Doc. A/66/PV.2, Press Release GA/11137, both of 16 September 2011.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref36">[36]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 130 et seq.</p>
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<p><a href="#_ftnref37">[37]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 131.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref38">[38]</a> The ICIL only speaks of crimes against humanity in phase 2 of the crisis in Libya, entailing the armed conflicts that took place.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref39">[39]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 223, 234.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref40">[40]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 204 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref41">[41]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 252.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref42">[42]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 255 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref43">[43]</a> Cf. infra IV2) Obligations of Non-State Actors.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref44">[44]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 288.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref45">[45]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 273; 313 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref46">[46]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 318. The Libyan government claims that it controls 31 facilities, UN Doc. S/PV.6768 at p. 4 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref47">[47]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 348.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref48">[48]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 321 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref49">[49]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 383 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref50">[50]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 503 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref51">[51]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 535.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref52">[52]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 536.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref53">[53]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 518; The Guardian Online, Gaddafi faces new ICC charges for using rape as weapon in conflict, 9 June 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jun/08/gaddafi-forces-libya-britain-nato; Spiegel Online, Krieg in Libyen: Chefankläger wirft Gaddafi Anstiftung zu Massenvergewaltigungen vor, 9 June 2011, http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/krieg-in-libyen-chefanklaeger-wirft-gaddafi-anstiftung-zu-massenvergewaltigungen-vor-a-767501.html.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref54">[54]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 599 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref55">[55]</a> ICIL-Report, at paras. 649 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref56">[56]</a> UN International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries, 4 December 1989, 2163 UNTS 75.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref57">[57]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 770.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref58">[58]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 771 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref59">[59]</a> ICIL-Report, at paras. 775 et seq., especially at para. 784-</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref60">[60]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 783.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref61">[61]</a> ICIL-Report, at paras. 132 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref62">[62]</a> Cf. supra at para. 24.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref63">[63]</a> First Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court to the United Nations Security Council, 4 May 2011, at para. 37.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref64">[64]</a> <em>M. Brunner</em>/<em>R. Frau</em>, Die Maßnahmen des Sicherheitsrates der Vereinten Nationen in Bezug auf Libyen 2011, in: Humanitäres Völkerrecht &#8211; Informationsschriften 2011, p. 192 et seq., at p. 195.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref65">[65]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 18.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref66">[66]</a> Art. 3 Geneva Conventions or Art. 1 (2) AP 2.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref67">[67]</a> ICJ, <em>Case concerning the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Ltd., Second Phase (Belgium v. Spain)</em>, judgment of 5 February 1970, ICJ Rep. 1970, p. 3 et seq., at para. 34.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref68">[68]</a> <em>K. Doehring</em>, Völkerrecht, 2nd edition, Heidelberg 2004, at para. 986. <em>E. de Wet</em>, The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council, 2004, poses the question, but leaves it open for discussion.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref69">[69]</a> Preambular paragraph 2 ICCPR.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref70">[70]</a> ECtHR, <em>Banković and others v. Belgium and 16 Other Contracting States</em>, Appl. no. 52207/99, 12 December 2001, at para. 59.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref71">[71]</a> <em>O. De Schutter</em>, International Human Rights Law, Cambridge, 2010, at p. 124. Art. 2 (1) ICCPR, art. 1 ECHR; art. 1 (1) American Convention on Human Rights of 22 November 1969, 144 UNTS 123; art. 26, 34 (5) Arab Charter on Human Rights of 22 May 2004, 12 Int&#8217;l Hum. Rts. Rep. 893 (2005). ICJ, <em>Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory</em>, Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004, ICJ Rep. 2004, p. 136 ff., at para. 112.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref72">[72]</a> ECtHR, <em>Loizidou v. Turkey</em>, Appl. no. 15318/89, 18 December 1996, at para. 52. Cf. also ECtHR, <em>Drozd and Janousek v. France and Spain</em>, Appl. no. 12747/87, 26 June 1992, at para. 91; CtHR, <em>Loizidou v. Turkey </em>(preliminary objections), Appl. no. 15318/89, 23 March 1995, at para. 62.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref73">[73]</a> <em>O. De Schutter</em>, International Human Rights Law, Cambridge, 2010, at p. 123; M. Milanovic, From Compromise to Principle: Clarifying the Concept of State Jurisdiction in Human Rights Treaties, in: Human Rights Law Review 8 (2008), p. 436 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref74">[74]</a> ECtHR, <em>Banković and others v. Belgium and 16 Other Contracting States</em>, Appl. no. 52207/99, 12 December 2001, at para. 61.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref75">[75]</a> <em>M. Milanovic</em>, “From Compromise to Principle: Clarifying the Concept of State Jurisdiction in Human Rights Treaties”, in: Human Rights Law Review 8 (2008), at p. 436 423.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref76">[76]</a> ECtHR, <em>Banković and others v. Belgium and 16 Other Contracting States</em>, Appl. no. 52207/99, 12 December 2001, at para. 71.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref77">[77]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 18.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref78">[78]</a> Throughout the ICCPR, for instance, the obligations of “State Parties“ are mentioned.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref79">[79]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 236.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref80">[80]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 236.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref81">[81]</a> ICIL-Report, at paras. 248 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref82">[82]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 242.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref83">[83]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 247.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref84">[84]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 244.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref85">[85]</a> Cf. supra at para. 3.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref86">[86]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 237.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref87">[87]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 238.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref88">[88]</a> ICIL-Report, at paras. 238 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref89">[89]</a> UN Doc. S/RES/1973 (2011) of 17 March 2011, at para. 4.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref90">[90]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 603.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref91">[91]</a> Cf. infra IV7) NATO’s Operation ‘Unified Protector’ and Human Rights Law.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref92">[92]</a> Cf. ICC, Decision on the “Prosecutor’s Application Pursuant to Article 58 as to Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar GADDAFI, Saif al-Islam GADDAFI and Abdullah AL-SENUSSI”, 27 June 2011, Case-No. ICC-01/11-01/11, at paras. 17 et seq., 29, 72 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref93">[93]</a> Cf. <em>W. Lacher</em>, Libyen nach Qaddafi &#8211; Staatszerfall oder Staatsbildung?, SWP-Aktuell 2011/A 12, March 2011.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref94">[94]</a> Cf. Record of the 6498th Meeting of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PV.6498 of 17 March 2011, at p. 4 (United Kingdom, Germany), p. 7 (Colombia), p. 8 et seq. (Portugal).</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref95">[95]</a> Cf. <em>P. Kunig</em>, Intervention, Prohibition of, in: R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford, 2008, online edition, (www.mpepil.com).</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref96">[96]</a> Cf. <em>P. Kunig</em>, Intervention, Prohibition of, in: R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford, 2008, online edition, (www.mpepil.com), at para. 24.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref97">[97]</a> Cf. <em>K. Ziegler</em>, Domaine Réservé, in: R. Wolfrum (Ed.), <em>The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</em>, Oxford 2008, online edition, (www.mpepil.com), at para. 5 (f).</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref98">[98]</a> The following facts are taken from ICIL-Report, at paras. 390-451.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref99">[99]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 392.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref100">[100]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 400.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref101">[101]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 449.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref102">[102]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 394.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref103">[103]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 488.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref104">[104]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 217; Human Rights Watch, Libya: Apparent Execution of 53 Gaddafi Supporters, 24 October 2011, http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/10/24/libya-apparent-execution-53-gaddafi-supporters. Cf. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2012, at p. 599.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref105">[105]</a> <em>ICRC</em> Strengthening legal protection for victims of armed conflicts, Draft Resolution &amp; Report, 31st International Conference 2011, Geneva, October 2011, at p. 4.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref106">[106]</a> ICIL-Report, at para. 613.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref107">[107]</a> ECtHR, <em>Banković and others v. Belgium and 16 Other Contracting States</em>, Appl. no. 52207/99, 12 December 2001, at para. 71 et seq.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref108">[108]</a> ECtHR, <em>al-Skeini and others v. The United Kingdom</em>, Appl. no. 55721/07, 7 July 2011.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref109">[109]</a> Cf. only <em>M. Milanovic</em>, Al-Skeini and Al-Jedda<em> </em>in Strasbourg, in: EJIL 23 (2012), p. 121-139.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref110">[110]</a> For the record it should be noted that the present author doubts that human rights law applies in NATO’s campaign. Cf. <em>R. Frau</em>, Unmanned Military Systems and Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Law, forthcoming.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref111">[111]</a> Al Jazeera, NATO ‘ignoring civilian deaths in Libya’, 17 May 2012, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/05/201251416321904479.html.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref112">[112]</a> Cf. Preambular paragraphs 4 and 5 ICC-Statute.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref113">[113]</a> Security Council Resolution 1970 (2011), UN Doc. No. S/Res./1970 (2011), 26 February 2011.</p>
</div>
<div>
<p><a href="#_ftnref114">[114]</a> Cf. art. 17 ICC-Statute.</p>
</div>
</div>
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		<title>Analyse Nr. 12: Der Haftbefehl gegen Abdel Hussein von März 2012</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-12-der-haftbefehl-gegen-abdel-hussein-von-m%c3%a4rz-2012/</link>
		<comments>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-12-der-haftbefehl-gegen-abdel-hussein-von-m%c3%a4rz-2012/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 14 May 2012 13:38:50 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://darfursituation.org/?p=786</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Der Haftbefehl des IStGH gegen den amtierenden Verteidigungsminister des Sudan von März 2012 ist rechtlich vertretbar und darüber hinaus zu begrüßen. Nicht nachvollziehbar ist, warum dieser Haftbefehl erst neun Jahre nach den vorgeworfenen Taten beantragt und ausgestellt wurde, betrafen doch bereits zwei Haftbefehle aus dem Jahr 2007 und ein Haftbefehl aus dem Jahr 2009 gegen [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Der Haftbefehl des IStGH gegen den amtierenden Verteidigungsminister des Sudan von März 2012 ist rechtlich vertretbar und darüber hinaus zu begrüßen. Nicht nachvollziehbar ist, warum dieser Haftbefehl erst neun Jahre nach den vorgeworfenen Taten beantragt und ausgestellt wurde, betrafen doch bereits zwei Haftbefehle aus dem Jahr 2007 und ein Haftbefehl aus dem Jahr 2009 gegen andere Beschuldigte denselben Tatkomplex.</em></p>
<p><strong>Der Beschuldigte und die Vorwürfe</strong></p>
<p>1      Anfang März 2012 hat der Internationale Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) gegen den amtierenden Verteidigungsminister des Sudan Haftbefehl erlassen. In einer früheren Funktion war <em>Abdel Raheem Muhammad </em><em>Hussein</em> Innenminister des Sudan und Sonderbeauftragter des Präsidenten für Darfur. Der Haftbefehl erging aufgrund des Verdachts von Kriegsverbrechen und Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit, die <em>Hussein</em> zu Beginn des Konfliktes in Darfur 2003/2004 begangen haben soll. Damit wächst die Zahl der Beschuldigten in der Darfur-Situation auf sechs, wobei das Verfahren gegen einen Beschuldigten eingestellt wurde und das Verfahren gegen zwei Beschuldigte demnächst beginnen soll.</p>
<p>2      Die Kammer wirft <em>Hussein</em> dreizehn Punkte vor, die er als mittelbarer Täter gemäß Art. 25 Abs. 3 lit. a) IStGH-Statut begangen haben soll. Dazu gehören die Verwirklichung von sieben Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit und sechs Kriegsverbrechen.</p>
<p>3      Genauer handelt es sich um Vorwürfe der vorsätzlichen Tötung (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. a] IStGH-Statut), zwangsweisen Überführung der Bevölkerung (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. d] IStGH-Statut), des Freiheitsentzuges oder sonstiger schwerwiegender Freiheitsberaubung (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. e] IStGH-Statut), der Folter (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. f] IStGH-Statut), Vergewaltigung (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. g] IStGH-Statut), Verfolgung (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. h] IStGH-Statut) und anderer unmenschlicher Handlungen (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. k] IStGH-Statut) als Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit und den Kriegsverbrechen der vorsätzlichen Tötung (Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. c] num. i] IStGH-Statut), Beeinträchtigung der persönlichen Würde (Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. c] num. ii] IStGH-Statut), vorsätzlichen Angriffe gegen die Zivilbevölkerung (Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. e] num. i] IStGH-Statut), Plünderung (Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. e] num. v] IStGH-Statut), Vergewaltigung (Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. e] num. vii] IStGH-Statut) und Zerstörung fremden Eigentums (Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. e] num. xii] IStGH-Statut). Wie aus der Verortung der Verbrechen in Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. c) und lit. e) IStGH-Statut ersichtlich ist, geht die Kammer nach wie vor davon aus, dass der Konflikt in Darfur 2003/2004 ein nicht-internationaler bewaffneter Konflikt im Sinne des humanitären Völkerrechts war.</p>
<p>4      <em>Hussein</em> wird vorgeworfen, als Innenminister und  Sonderbeauftragter des Präsidenten für Darfur Verbrechen befehligt und koordiniert zu haben. Die Vorwürfe sind teils identisch mit denen, die <em>Ahmed Harun</em> und <em>Ali Kushayb</em> (vgl. <a href="http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-2-die-ersten-haftbefehle-in-der-darfur-situation-harun-ali-kushayb/"><em>R. Frau</em>, Erste konkrete Strafverfahren in der Darfur-Situation – Haftbefehle gegen <em>Ahmed Harun</em> und <em>Ali Kushayb</em>, DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 2, 2010, Rn. 13</a>) und teils identisch mit denen, die <em>Omar al-Bashir</em> vorgeworfen werden (<em>R. Frau</em>, Haftbefehl gegen den Präsidenten des Sudan, <em>Omar al-Bashir, </em>DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 3, 2010). Mit dem Antrag des Anklägers und der Entscheidung der Kammer von 2012 konzentriert sich der IStGH nunmehr auf die Kommandoebene zwischen <em>Ahmed Harun</em> und <em>Omar al-Bashir</em>.</p>
<p>5      Aus rechtlicher Sicht sind daher Fragen des materiellen Rechts weniger interessant als andere Aspekte. Dennoch sollen kurz einige Bemerkungen gemacht werden.</p>
<p>6      <em>Hussein</em> hat eigenhändig weder gemordet, noch vergewaltigt, noch andere Taten begangen. Vorgeworfen wird ihm vielmehr, als Minister den Plan der Zentralregierung ausgeführt und koordiniert zu haben; die Kammer spricht insoweit von „<em>command and control</em>“. Sie verweist auf ihre Entscheidung in dem Verfahren gegen <em>al-Bashir</em> von 2009, in dem festgestellt wurde, dass hochrangige sudanesische Politiker und Militärs den sudanesischen Staatsapparat genutzt haben, um ihren verbrecherischen Plan umzusetzen. <em>Hussein</em> sei nicht nur ein einflussreiches Mitglied des innern Kerns gewesen (Rn. 23 der hier besprochenen Entscheidung), er sei, so ein Zeuge der Anklage, ein Architekt der Antwort auf die Aufstände in Darfur gewesen (Antrag des Anklägers, Rn. 36). Darüber hinaus habe er durch Dekrete die Polizei in Darfur gesteuert, unmittelbar in der Rekrutierung neuer Militär- und Polizeikräfte mitgewirkt und war verantwortlich für die Organisation und das Training der Popular Defence Forces und der Janjaweed. In seiner Verantwortlichkeit als Polizeiführer habe er eine gezielte Politik der Nichteinmischung verfolgt, wenn es zu Straftaten von Seiten der regierungstreuen Milizen gekommen ist. <em>Omar al-Bashir</em> habe dabei seine Befehlsgewalt an <em>Hussein</em> delegiert, die dieser wiederrum an <em>Harun</em> delegiert habe (Rn. 31).</p>
<p>7      Die Kammer gibt sich große Mühe, den Vorsatz von <em>Hussein</em> nachzuweisen. Sie betont, dass er in seiner Position durchaus in der Lage war, die Folgen seines Handelns abzusehen. Mehr noch, er wusste genau, was sich in Darfur abspielte, akzeptierte die Vorkommnisse und unternahm nichts, um sie in Zukunft zu unterbinden.</p>
<p><strong>Immunität, Komplementarität und der Grund für den Haftbefehl</strong></p>
<p>8      Interessanter sind andere Aspekte, die von der Kammer bloß gestreift werden. Nur kurz behauptet die Kammer, dass weder die derzeitige Position von <em>Hussein</em> als Verteidigungsminister noch die früheren Funktionen als Innenminister und Sonderbeauftragter des Präsidenten für Darfur die Strafverfolgung verhinderten. Die Kammer verweist dabei auf Art. 27 IStGH-Statut. Doch irrt die Kammer hier, denn diese vertragsrechtliche Ausnahme gilt für den Sudan als Nichtvertragspartei gerade nicht. Im Falle einer Sicherheitsratsüberweisung wird diese Immunität allerdings wegen der insoweit vorgehenden Verbindlichkeit der Überweisungsresolution völkerrechtsgemäß aufgehoben.</p>
<p>9      Nur oberflächlich äußert sich die Kammer zu der Frage der Komplementarität (anders als noch der Ankläger, vgl. Rn. 86 ff. seines Antrages). Demnach kann der IStGH seine Gerichtsbarkeit nur ausüben, wenn nationale Strafverfolgungsmaßnahmen nicht stattfinden oder nicht erfolgversprechend sind, Art. 17 IStGH-Statut. Dass die derzeitigen sudanesischen Strafverfolgungs-maßnahmen generell nicht geeignet sind, den IStGH an der Strafverfolgung zu hindern, wurde bereits dargelegt (<a href="http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-2-die-ersten-haftbefehle-in-der-darfur-situation-harun-ali-kushayb/"><em>R. Frau</em>, Erste konkrete Strafverfahren in der Darfur-Situation – Haftbefehle gegen <em>Ahmed Harun</em> und <em>Ali Kushayb</em>, DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 2, 2010, Rn. 18 ff.</a>). Auch ist nicht ersichtlich, dass konkret gegen den Beschuldigten <em>Hussein</em> ermittelt wird. Damit ist die Strafverfolgung durch den IStGH zulässig. Es wäre zu begrüßen gewesen, wenn die Kammer es nicht bloß abgelehnt hätte, auf Fragen der Komplementarität einzugehen, sondern diese inhaltlich beantwortet hätte.</p>
<p>10   Die Kammer betont, dass der Haftbefehl erforderlich sei, um das Erscheinen von <em>Hussein</em> in Den Haag sicherzustellen. Aufgrund seiner herausgehobenen Position werde er nicht freiwillig vor dem IStGH erscheinen. Dabei verweist die Kammer auf die schlechten Erfahrungen, die der IStGH mit den bisherigen sudanesischen Funktionsträgern gemacht hat. Deren Verhalten kann <em>Hussein</em> aber nicht angelastet werden. Zu Recht geht die Kammer in der Folge davon aus, dass die sudanesische Regierung, die immerhin von einem gesuchten Beschuldigten geführt wird, sich bislang jeder Kooperation verweigert hat. Dieses Verhalten dürfte sich bei einem Haftbefehl gegen ein Mitglied des innersten Führungszirkels nicht ändern.</p>
<p>11    Der Ankläger hat den Haftbefehl auch aus Abschreckungsgründen beantragt. Ein Haftbefehl kann nach Art.  59 Abs. 1 lit. b) num. iii) IStGH-Statut auch ergehen, um den Beschuldigten an der weiteren Begehung dieses Verbrechens oder eines damit im Zusammenhang stehenden Verbrechens zu hindern, das sich aus den gleichen Umständen ergibt. Allerdings lehnt die Kammer ab, den Haftbefehl auch aus dieser präventiven Dimension heraus zu erlassen, und dies zu Recht. Denn der Ankläger behauptet kurz in einem Satz, dass <em>Hussein</em> noch immer Verbrechen befehlt oder koordiniert (Antrag, Rn. 91). Dennoch: Der Abschreckungseffekt könnte für <em>Hussein</em> in einem anderen Konflikt eine Rolle spielen.</p>
<p><strong>Der Konflikt mit dem Südsudan</strong></p>
<p>12    Im Konflikt des Sudan mit dem Südsudan hat <em>Hussein</em> bereits martialische Äußerungen von sich gegeben hat. Er habe, so Presseberichte, angekündigt, mit aller Härte gegen den Südsudan vorzugehen. Seit der Trennung des Südsudan vom Sudan 2011 streiten sich beide Staaten über ölreiche Grenzregionen. Im März und April 2012 kam es dabei zum Einsatz von Waffengewalt in der Region um Heglig, einer kleinen Stadt im sudanesischen Bundesstaat Süd-Kordofan. Dabei ist umstritten ob der Südsudan mit seinen Streitkräften offensiv gegen den Sudan vorgegangen ist (so die Angaben des Sudan) oder ob der militärische Vorstoß in Selbstverteidigung des Südsudan gegen eine vorhergehende Militäroperation des Sudan auf südsudanesischem Territorium erfolgt ist (so die südsudanesische Begründung).</p>
<p>13    <em>Hussein</em> soll angekündigt haben, die Aggressoren „mit allen Mitteln“ zurückzuschlagen. <em>Ahmed Harun</em>, der heute Gouverneur des Bundesstaates Süd-Kordofan ist, soll nach Angaben von Al Jazeera sudanesische Soldaten dazu aufgerufen haben, keine Gefangenen zu machen. Sollten sich die Vorwürfe bewahrheiten, wovon der Chefankläger des IStGH in einer Pressemitteilung ausging, dann könnte <em>Haruns</em> Aufruf ein Kriegsverbrechen nach Art. 8 Abs. 2 lit. e) num. x) IStGH-Statut darstellen.</p>
<p>14    Es steht zu befürchten, dass sich das Muster aus Darfur wiederholt: Auf höchster Ebene entscheiden <em>Omar al-Bashir</em> und sein Stab, zu dem auch der Minister <em>Hussein</em> gehört, über die Strategie gegen den Gegner. Dazu gehört, Kriegsverbrechen und in Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit zu begehen. Ausgeführt wird der Plan dann von Soldaten oder Milizen vor Ort, die vom regionalen Befehlshaber <em>Ahmed Harun</em> befehligt werden. Dies ist freilich für den Konflikt mit dem Südsudan nicht bewiesen. Sollte es sich aber bewahrheiten, dann zeigt dies deutlich den Abschreckungseffekt auf, den Haftbefehle des IStGH haben, insb. wenn sie jahrelang nicht vollstreckt und von der Staatengemeinschaft nicht mit dem erforderlichen Ernst betrieben werden.</p>
<p><strong>Zur Kooperationspflicht der Staaten</strong></p>
<p>15    Daher ist im Fall gegen <em>Hussein</em> zu begrüßen, dass die Kammer deutlich zur Kooperation auffordert. In drei Beschlüssen von Mitte März wendet sie sich an die internationale Gemeinschaft, differenziert dabei zwischen den verschiedenen Adressaten und erinnert diese an ihre jeweiligen Mitwirkungspflichten.</p>
<p>16    Die Kammer fordert den Sudan ausdrücklich dazu auf, mit dem IStGH zu kooperieren und <em>Hussein</em> festzunehmen und an den IStGH zu überstellen. Als Nichtvertragspartei gilt, dass der Sudan nur durch die Überweisungsresolution Res. 1593 (2005) zur Zusammenarbeit verpflichtet ist, und zwar im gleichen Ausmaß wie eine Vertragspartei des Statuts.</p>
<p>17   Ebenso werden die Mitgliedststaaten des IStGH aufgefordert, <em>Hussein</em> festzunehmen und an den IStGH zu überstellen. Dabei scheint die Kammer nicht einmal die Möglichkeit zuzulassen, dass Staaten selbst Strafverfolgungsmaßnahmen gegen den Beschuldigten durchführen. Dies ist verwunderlich, sind nach dem Grundsatz der Komplementarität doch primär die Staaten und erst sekundär der IStGH zur Strafverfolgung zuständig. Der Kammer ist aber zuzugestehen, dass kein Staaten ersichtlich ist, der Gerichtsbarkeit über die Taten hat.</p>
<p>18    In einem dritten Aufruf wendet sich die Kammer an Mitglieder des Sicherheitsrates, die nicht Vertragsparteien des IStGH-Statuts sind. Hier ist die Sprache schon diplomatischer. Anstatt die Staaten <em>aufzufordern</em>, <em>Hussein</em> festzunehmen und zu überstellen, werden diese Staaten lediglich dazu <em>eingeladen</em>. Das ist richtig, hat der IStGH doch keine Kompetenz gegenüber Nichtvertragsparteien, die nicht zur Kooperation verpflichtet sind. Bedauerlichweise erinnert die Kammer den Sicherheitsrat lediglich daran, dass er selber den Sudan zur Kooperation verpflichtet hat; die Kammer bittet den Sicherheitsrat dagegen nicht um Mithilfe bei der Vollstreckung – eine verpasste Chance.</p>
<p>(<a href="http://darfursituation.org/erneut-streit-zwischen-sudan-und-südsudan-der-konflikt-um-heglig/">Mehr zu dem Konflikt hier</a>)</p>
<p><strong>Ergebnis</strong></p>
<p>19    Die Entscheidung der Kammer ist aus einer rechtlichen Perspektive zu begrüßen. Es verwundert aber, warum der Haftbefehl erst jetzt, neun Jahre nach den vorgeworfenen Taten, beantragt und ausgestellt wird. Dabei darf zwar nicht vergessen werden, dass der Nachweis über die Taten eines Schreibtischtäters für die Anklagebehörde schwer zu führen gewesen sein muss. Warum war es aber einfacher, sowohl für die niedrige als auch für die höhere Kommandoebene Haftbefehle zu beantragen? Dies erschließt sich aus den veröffentlichten Dokumenten nicht.</p>
<p>20   Es bleibt zu hoffen, dass der Haftbefehl auch durchgesetzt wird. Andernfalls verliert der IStGH immer mehr an Autorität und Glaubwürdigkeit. Aufgrund der bisherigen Erfahrungen in den Fällen <em>Harun</em> und <em>al-Bashir</em> steht aber zu befürchten, dass auch dieser Haftbefehl von allen Verantwortlichen ignoriert wird.</p>
<p><a href="http://darfursituation.org/datenbank/"><em>Zum Download der Analyse</em></a></p>
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		<title>Analyse Nr. 11: Gaddafi vor Gericht? – Zu den ersten drei Haftbefehlen des Internationalen Strafgerichtshof in der Libyen-Situation</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-11-gaddafi-vor-gericht-%e2%80%93-zu-den-ersten-drei-haftbefehlen-des-internationalen-strafgerichtshof-in-der-libyen-situation/</link>
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		<pubDate>Mon, 14 May 2012 13:35:42 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Erscheint demnächst, lesen Sie in der Zwischenzeit den Artikel oder das BOFAX zu diesem Thema.]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Erscheint demnächst, lesen Sie in der Zwischenzeit den <a href="http://darfursituation.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/4-2011-brunnerfrau.pdf">Artikel</a> oder das <a href="http://www.ifhv.rub.de/documents/bofaxe/bofaxe2011/388d.pdf">BOFAX</a> zu diesem Thema.</p>
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		<title>Analyse Nr. 10: Anmerkungen zum ersten Bericht des Chefanklägers für den VN-Sicherheitsrat in der Libyen-Situation</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-10-anmerkungen-zum-ersten-bericht-des-chefankl%c3%a4gers-f%c3%bcr-den-vn-sicherheitsrat-in-der-libyen-situation/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 18 May 2011 12:55:38 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Der Chefankläger des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofs in Den Haag hat dem Wunsch des Sicherheitsrates entsprochen und seinen ersten Bericht in der Libyen-Situation vorgelegt. Darin hat er seine Ermittlungstätigkeit näher beschrieben und angekündigt, den Erlass von drei Haftbefehlen zu beantragen. Grundlage des Berichts 1      Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) existiert und arbeitet unabhängig von den Vereinten Nationen (VN). [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Der Chefankläger des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofs in Den Haag hat dem Wunsch des Sicherheitsrates entsprochen und seinen ersten Bericht in der Libyen-Situation vorgelegt. Darin hat er seine Ermittlungstätigkeit näher beschrieben und angekündigt, den Erlass von drei Haftbefehlen zu beantragen.</em></p>
<p><strong>Grundlage des Berichts</strong></p>
<p>1      Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) existiert und arbeitet unabhängig von den Vereinten Nationen (VN). Als selbstständiges Völkerrechtssubjekt ist er nicht an die Beschlüsse andere Organisationen gebunden. Dies gilt selbst für Sicherheitsratsresolutionen nach Kapitel VII der VN-Charta (VNCh). Auch diese können den IStGH nur dann binden, wenn das IStGH-Statut dies vorsieht.</p>
<p>2      An keiner Stelle sieht das Statut eine Berichtspflicht des Anklägers gegenüber dem Sicherheitsrat vor. Daher fordert der Sicherheitsrat den Ankläger auch nicht auf, sondern « lädt ihn ein » (Res. 1970 [2011]) , regelmäßig Bericht zu erstatten. Diese Einladung nimmt der Ankläger an und berichtet dem Sicherheitsrat in seinem ersten Bericht von Mai 2011 über die ersten zwei Monate der Ermittlungen.</p>
<p>Die Lage in Libyen als Situation im Sinne des Art. 13 lit. b) IStGH-Statut: Die Probleme der Komplementarität und Verbrechensschwere</p>
<p>3      Der Ankläger betont, dass die Kriterien der Jurisdiktion, Komplementarität und Schwere der Vorwürfe erfüllt seien und damit die Ermittlung durch den IStGH auslösen (zur Jurisdiktion s. <em>R. Frau</em>, Sicherheitsratsresolution 1970 [2011] – Rechtsgrundlage für Ermittlungen in Libyen, DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 9, 2011).</p>
<p>4      <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Komplementarität:</span> Der IStGH darf nur tätig werden, wenn innerstaatliche Strafverfolgung nicht erfolgt oder nicht erfolgversprechend ist, Art. 17 IStGH-Statut. Die angeblichen libyschen Strafverfolgungsmaßnahmen durch eine nationale Kommission finden nach den Erkenntnissen des Anklägers nicht statt.</p>
<p>5      Damit existiert keine Strafverfolgung, die den IStGH an der Ausübung seiner Gerichtsbarkeit hindert.</p>
<p>6      Zur <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Schwere der Verbrechen</span> stellt der Ankläger fest, dass allein die Überweisung durch den Sicherheitsrat eine solche Schwere nahelege. Das erscheint wie ein Taschenspielertrick, ist aber durchaus berechtigt. Der Sicherheitsrat ist nicht als Organ bekannt, das vorschnell handelt und „leichtere“ Konflikte mit Maßnahmen nach Kapitel VII VNCh behandelt. Die vielgescholtene politische Zusammensetzung des Sicherheitsrates sorgt hier für eine Vorauswahl nur der schwersten Situationen.</p>
<p>7      Anhaltspunkte findet der Ankläger weiterhin in der Anzahl der getöteten Personen. Der Ankläger hält die Zahl von 500 bis 700 getöteten Personen für realistisch, während der Nationale Übergangsrat, die bekannteste Organisation der Rebellen, von mehr als 10.000 Toten spricht und die libysche Regierung von nicht mehr als 200 Toten ausgeht.</p>
<p><strong>Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit</strong></p>
<p>8      Diese Unsicherheiten bezüglich der Tatsachenlage stellen ein Problem bei der Ahndung von Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit dar. Dies bedarf einer genaueren Erläuterung.</p>
<p>9      Leitgedanke der Sicherheitsratsüberweisung war es, die in Libyen stattfindenden Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit strafrechtlich zu ahnden (vgl. Erwägungsgrund 6 der Präambel Res. 1970 [2011]). Der Ankläger hält den Verdacht auf diese Verbrechen für begründet, insb. Vorwürfe wegen vorsätzlicher Tötung (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. a] IStGH-Statut), Freiheitsentzug (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. e] IStGH-Statut), Folter (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. f] IStGH-Statut) und Verfolgung einer identifizierbaren Gruppe oder Gemeinschaft (Art. 7 Abs. 1 lit. h] IStGH-Statut).</p>
<p>10   Der Ankläger betont, dass er für jeden Vorfall mindestens zwei Augenzeugen habe, deren Zeugnis durch Dokumente oder Foto- und Filmbeweise gestützt werde.</p>
<p>11    Problematisch ist aber nicht so sehr die Frage, ob wirklich Menschen getötet wurden, sondern ein rechtlicher Aspekt. Das Statut bestimmt, dass Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit nur dann vorliegen, wenn eine Handlung im Rahmen eines ausgedehnten oder systematischen Angriffs gegen die Zivilbevölkerung und in Kenntnis des Angriffs begangen wurde (Chapeau des Art. 7 Abs. 1 IStGH-Statut).</p>
<p>12    In der Kenia-Situation, die eine ähnliche, weil plötzliche, Gewalteskalation zwischen Regierung und Protestierenden zum Gegenstand hat, kann der Richter <em>Hans-Peter Kaul</em> einen solchen ausgedehnten oder systematischen Angriff nicht erkennen.</p>
<p>13    In seinem Bericht in der Libyen-Situation legt der Ankläger daher Wert darauf, dass sich alle Vorfälle ähnelten und so für einen systematischen Angriff sprechen würden. Allerdings bleibt dies doch noch etwas im Vagen, da der Ankläger zumindest in dem Bericht weitere Anhaltspunkte für eine Systematik schuldig bleibt.</p>
<p><strong>Die Anwendbarkeit des humanitären Völkerrechts</strong></p>
<p>14    Der Ankläger geht von der Anwendbarkeit des humanitären Völkerrechts aus. Dies ist nur der Fall, wenn ein internationaler oder ein nicht-internationaler bewaffneter Konflikt vorliegt.</p>
<p>15    Seit geraumer Zeit liegt ein nicht-internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt zwischen der libyschen Regierung und den Rebellen vor.</p>
<p>16    Der Ankläger geht in seinem Bericht davon aus, dass dieser nicht-internationale bewaffnete Konflikt seit Ende Februar 2011 vorliegt. Leider konkretisiert er den Beginn nicht – weder knüpft er an einen genauen Zeitpunkt noch an ein Ereignis an. Ihm ist allerdings zuzustimmen, dass gegen Ende Februar von einem solchen Konflikt ausgegangen werden muss (vgl. <em>R. Frau</em>, Sicherheitsratsresolution 1970 [2011] – Rechtsgrundlage für Ermittlungen in Libyen, DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 9, 2011, Rn. 10 ff.).</p>
<p>17   Etwas verwunderlich sind einige Stellungnahmen des Anklägers zu diesem nicht-internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt. So spricht der Ankläger häufiger von der Tötung von Kombatanten und angeblichen Kriegsgefangenen. Das Recht des nicht-internationalen bewaffneten Konflikts kennt beide Kategorien jedoch nicht. Die Anklagebehörde muss daher in Zukunft etwas sorgfältiger mit den Begrifflichkeiten umgehen.</p>
<p>18    Parallel zu diesem nicht-internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt liegt ein internationaler bewaffneter Konflikt zwischen der libyschen Regierung und den Staaten, die von der Ermächtigung der Res. 1973 (2011) Gebrauch machen, vor.</p>
<p><strong>Mögliche Kriegsverbrechen&#8230;</strong></p>
<p>19    In beiden Konflikten können Kriegsverbrechen begangen werden; dies hält der Ankläger nunmehr ausdrücklich für möglich, nachdem er zu Beginn der Ermittlungen dies noch nicht in Betracht gezogen hatte. Die Entscheidung des Anklägers ist in dieser Hinsicht zu begrüßen.</p>
<p>20   Der Ankläger identifiziert hier allerdings nur Kriegsverbrechen in einem nicht-internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt. Von einem Verdacht auf Kriegsverbrechen in dem internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt spricht er nicht. Dies liegt schlicht daran, dass die Verbrechen eben in dem Bürgerkrieg begangen werden und es keine Anhaltspunkte für Verbrechen in dem internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt zwischen Libyen und der Staatengemeinschaft gibt – gleichgültig, ob von Seiten Libyens oder von Seiten der Staatengemeinschaft.</p>
<p><strong>&#8230;und deren Spannungsverhältnis zu der Gerichtsbarkeitsausnahme</strong></p>
<p>21    Allerdings wird die Gerichtsbarkeitsausnahme, die durch Res. 1970 (2011) geschaffen wurde, zu den Kriegsverbrechen im internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt in einem Spannungsverhältnis stehen.</p>
<p>22    In Abs. 6 Res. 1970 (2011) nimmt der Sicherheitsrat Angehörige von Staaten, die nicht Vertragspartei des IStGH-Statuts sind, von der Gerichtsbarkeit des IStGH aus. Dieser Ausschluss ist völkerrechtlich nicht zu beanstanden (vgl. <em>R. Frau</em>, Sicherheitsratsresolution 1970 [2011] – Rechtsgrundlage für Ermittlungen in Libyen, DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 9, 2011, Rn. 9). In der Diskussion über den Bericht haben etliche Sicherheitsratsmitglieder erneut betont, wie wichtig ihnen diese Gerichtsbarkeitausnahme ist. Diese Ausnahme reicht dem Wortlaut nach aber nur soweit, wie der Sicherheitsrat zu Maßnahmen in Libyen ermächtigt. Allerdings hat der Sicherheitsrat den Staaten mit Res. 1973 (2011) einen sehr weitreichenden Handlungsspielraum zugestanden.</p>
<p>23    Warum steht diese Ausnahme nun in einem Spannungsverhältnis zu den Kriegsverbrechen?</p>
<p>In Libyen liegt ein internationaler bewaffneter Konflikt vor. In diesem können nicht nur libysche Soldaten, sondern auch Angehörige der ausländischen Streitkräfte Verbrechen begehen. Durch die Ausnahme ist der IStGH aber u. U. daran gehindert (oder genauer: erst gar nicht dazu befugt) diese Handlungen einer strafrechtlichen Prüfung zu unterziehen.</p>
<p>Damit entsteht ein Spannungsverhältnis zwischen libyschen Streitkräften und Angehörigen der Streikträfte einer IStGH-Vertragspartei einerseits und Drittstaatsangehörigen andererseits.</p>
<p>24    Es ist völkerrechtlich zulässig, die Gerichtsbarkeit des IStGH am Kriterium der Staatsangehörigkeit festzumachen; die Gerichtsbarkeit also zu eröffnen oder eben auszuschließen.</p>
<p>25    Der IStGH hat grundsätzlich keine Rechtsmacht über Drittstaatsangehörige. Erst die Kapitel-VII-Resolution des Sicherheitsrates begründet die völkerrechtliche Kompetenz, Drittstaatsangehörige auf dem Territorium eines Drittstaates strafrechtlich zu verfolgen. Der Sicherheitsrat hat bei der Auswahl seiner Maßnahmen, hier der Überweisung an den IStGH, einen sehr weiten Ermessenspielraum, den er im Falle Libyens einwandfrei genutzt hat.</p>
<p>26    Das Spannungsverhältnis erweist sich damit als rein politisch. Dennoch ist es nicht ohne Auswirkung auf die Arbeit des IStGH. Es steht zu befürchten, dass die Einstellung bzw. Nichtaufnahme eines Verfahrens gegen bspw. US-amerikanische Bomberpiloten erneut Diskussionen über die Legitimität des IStGH hervorrufen wird. Die Unparteilichkeit und Unabhängigkeit des IStGH werden in einem solchen Fall durch eine breite Öffentlichkeit wohl angezweifelt werden – auch wenn der IStGH in diesem Fall rechtlich gar nicht hätte anders handeln dürfen.</p>
<p><strong>Die möglichen Verdächtigen</strong></p>
<p>27   Der Ankläger spricht davon, nur die Hauptverantwortlichen zur Rechenschaft ziehen zu wollen, auch wenn er die derzeitig Verdächtigen namentlich nicht genannt hat. Zu dem Kreis der Hauptverantwortlichen gehörten vor allem die Personen, die  die identifizierten Vorkommnisse angeordnet, dazu angestiftet, diese finanziert oder geplant haben. Ob der Ankläger auch einen Haftbefehl gegen <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> beantragen wird, bleibt abzuwarten.</p>
<p>28    Der Ankläger geht allerdings nicht davon aus, dass nur die regulären libyschen Streitkräfte und die Regierung Verbrechen begangen haben &#8211; auch auf Seiten der Rebellen sei es bereits zu Verbrechen gekommen. Er verweist auf das Lynchen einiger „sub-saharischer Afrikaner“, die angeblich Söldner des Gaddafi-Regimes gewesen seien, durch einen Mob. Zwar ist selbstverständlich, dass der Ankläger allen Vorwürfen nachgeht. Doch sei es hier besonders betont, verdeutlicht dies doch die Unabhängigkeit der Untersuchungen von politischen Motiven. Es ist daher zu begrüßen.</p>
<p>29    Unwahrscheinlich ist es, dass Staatsangehörige fremder Staaten Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit begehen, dazu fehlt es wohl an einem ausgedehnten oder systematischen Angriff auf die Zivilbevölkerung. Die Frage nach Kriegsverbechen durch ausländische Staatsangehörige bleibt dahingestellt.</p>
<p><strong>Das zukünftige Vorgehen</strong></p>
<p>30   Der Ankläger wird demnächst Haftbefehle beantragen. Die Entscheidung darüber obliegt der Vorverfahrenskammer I. Der Ankläger zeigt sich zuversichtlich, dass diese auch ausgestellt werden und stellt in Aussicht, weitere Verfahren zu eröffnen.</p>
<p><strong>Kooperationspflichten</strong></p>
<p>31    Die Regierung Libyens ist verpflichtet, die Durchsetzung der Haftbefehle sicherzustellen. Sollten die Haftbefehle gegen Mitglieder der Regierung erlassen werden, so darf damit allerdings nicht gerechnet werden.</p>
<p>32    Die Rebellen in Libyen haben laut Aussagen des Anklägers bereits angekündigt, mit dem IStGH zu kooperieren und etwaige Haftbefehle zu vollstrecken. Abgesehen davon, ob die Rebellen tatsächlich in der Lage sind, Verhaftungen vorzunehmen und die verhafteten Personen an den IStGH zu überstellen, und ob dies rechtlich zulässig wäre, muss wohl bezweifelt werden, dass eigene Mitkämpfer ausgeliefert werden.</p>
<p>33    Der Ankläger gibt zu verstehen, dass die Pflicht, den Haftbefehlen Folge zu leisten, sich nicht auf Libyen beschränkt: Res. 1970 (2011) verpflichtet die Vertragsparteien des IStGH-Statuts dazu, mit dem IStGH zu kooperieren, also die Haftbefehle durchzusetzen. Damit spielt der Ankläger auf die mangelden Kooperation einiger afrikanischer Vertragsparteien an – bis heute reist <em>Omar al-Bashir</em>, der mit Haftbefehl gesuchte Präsident des Sudan, unbehelligt in zahlreiche Staaten, die das IStGH-Statut ratifiziert haben. Damit brechen diese Staaten ihre vertraglichen Verpflichtungen (vgl. <em>R. Frau</em>, Der Sudan verweigert die Zusammenarbeit im Fall <em>Harun / Ali Kushayb, </em>DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 6, <em>2010; R. Frau, </em>Trotz Haftbefehls: <em>Omar al-Bashir</em> auf Staatsbesuch – Zur Kooperationspflicht einiger Staaten, DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr.7, 2010).</p>
<p><strong>Ergebnis</strong></p>
<p>34    Der Bericht des Anklägers ist zu begrüßen. Vor allem die Tatsache, dass der Ankläger sich nicht mehr nur auf den Vorwurf von Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit konzentriert, sondern auch Kriegsverbrechen in Betracht zieht, spricht für eine umfassende Untersuchung durch den Ankläger. Allerdings bedarf es dort eines besseren und „saubereren“ Vorgehens. Zu begrüßen ist, dass der Ankläger schnell arbeitet und bereits erste Haftbefehle beantragen wird.</p>
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		<title>Analyse Nr. 9: Sicherheitsratsresolution 1970 (2011) – Rechtsgrundlage für Ermittlungen in Libyen</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-9-sicherheitsratsresolution-1970-2011-%e2%80%93-rechtsgrundlage-f%c3%bcr-ermittlungen-in-libyen/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 18 May 2011 12:55:29 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://darfursituation.org/?p=414</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Der Sicherheitsrat der Vereinten Nationen hat die Situation in Libyen 2011 an den Internationalen Strafgerichtshof in Den Haag überwiesen. Der Sicherheitsrat orientiert sich an der Überweisungsresolution im Falle Darfurs. Die Überweisungsresolution für die Situation in Libyen wirft einige neue Rechtsfragen auf. Im Ergebnis ist die Resolution 1970 (2011) dennoch rechtmäßig. Nunmehr ist der IStGH zur [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Der Sicherheitsrat der Vereinten Nationen hat die Situation in Libyen 2011 an den Internationalen Strafgerichtshof in Den Haag überwiesen. Der Sicherheitsrat orientiert sich an der Überweisungsresolution im Falle Darfurs. Die Überweisungsresolution für die Situation in Libyen wirft einige neue Rechtsfragen auf. Im Ergebnis ist die Resolution 1970 (2011) dennoch rechtmäßig. Nunmehr ist der IStGH zur strafrechtlichen Aufarbeitung der Proteste in Libyen zuständig.</em></p>
<p><strong>Die Lage in Libyen: Gefahr für den Weltfrieden oder rein innerstaatliche Angelegenheit?</strong></p>
<p>1      Der Sicherheitsrat der Vereinten Nationen kann eine Überweisungsresolution an den IStGH nur im Rahmen des siebten Kapitels der Charta der Vereinten Nationen (VNCh) beschliessen. Erforderlich für ein solches Handeln ist, dass eine Gefährdung oder ein Bruch des Weltfriedens oder eine Angriffshandlung festgestellt wird, Art. 39 VNCh. Die Bewertung der Tatsachen, also die Frage, ob eine Gefährdung des Weltfriedens vorliegt, obliegt allein dem Sicherheitsrat, er hat einen weitreichenden Beurteilungsspielraum. Regelmäßig geschieht dies durch die Formulierung „<em>determining that the situation in X constitutes a threat to international peace and security</em>“. Problematisch ist, dass der Sicherheitsrat in Resolution 1970 (2011)  eine solche ausdrückliche Feststellung nicht trifft.</p>
<p>2      In der Wissenschaft wird verschiedentlich eine Pflicht zur ausdrücklichen Feststellung gefordert. Begründet wird dies damit, dass Art. 39 VNCh eine solche Verpflichtung wohl vorsehe und das es Sinn und Zweck einer solchen Feststellung sei, den Staaten deutlich aufzuzeigen, dass es sich um eine Resolution nach Kapitel VII VNCh handelt, die zu befolgen ist.</p>
<p>3      Eine Wortlautauslegung der verschiedenen Sprachfassungen der Charta, wie sie nach Art. 111 Satz 1 VNCh und Art. 33 Abs. 1 Wiener Übereinkommen über das Recht der Verträge von 1969 (WÜV) erforderlich ist, beantwortet die Frage einer Pflicht zur ausdrücklichen Feststellung nicht.</p>
<p>4      Eine teleologische Auslegung führt aber zu einem Ergebnis. Sinn und Zweck der Charta und insb. Art. 39 VNCh ist es nämlich, dass sich der Sicherheitsrat bewusst wird, im Rahmen von Kapitel VII VNCh zu handeln, dies den Staaten deutlich gemacht wird, damit diese um ihre Verpflichtung nach Art. 25 VNCh wissen und ein effektives Handeln des Sicherheitsrates zu ermöglichen.</p>
<p>5      Allerdings werden diese Ziele nicht nur durch eine ausdrückliche Feststellung erreicht – immerhin besteht Einigkeit, das auch kein ausdrücklicher Verweis auf Art. 39 VNCh erforderlich ist -, sondern auch dadurch, dass der Sicherheitsrat ausdrücklich erwähnt, dass er unter Kapitel VII VNCh tätig wird. In der Praxis betont der Sicherheitsrat: „<em>Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations</em>.“ In Res. 1970 (2011) fehlt zwar die Feststellung, dass eine Gefährdung des Weltfriedens vorliegt, die Feststellung, dass es sich um eine Maßnahme nach Kapitel VII VNCh handelt, wird aber getroffen.</p>
<p>6      Diese Feststellung allein ist nicht ausreichend. Vielmehr ist mit <em>Andreas Zimmermann</em> zu fordern, dass in einem solchen Fall objektiv eine Lage vorliegt, die als Gefährdung des Weltfriedens angesehen werden kann. Andernfalls wären die Voraussetzungen, die Art. 39 VNCh erfordert, nämlich dass eine solche Gefahr vorliegt, überflüssig.</p>
<p>7      Die Lage in Libyen stellt eine Gefährdung des Weltfriedens dar.</p>
<p>(a) Tausende Libyer fliehen in die Nachbarstaaten. Solche Flüchtlingsströme gelten als das klassische Beispiel von <em>spill-over</em>-Effekten, die aus einem rein internen Konflikt eine Gefahr für die internationale Gemeinschaft machen.</p>
<p>(b) In Libyen finden schwere Menschenrechtsverletzungen und wohl auch Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit statt. Diese sind nach dem Völkerrecht verboten. Damit ist die <em>domaine</em><em> réservé</em> Libyens nicht berührt, es handelt sich gerade nicht um eine rein innerstaatliche Angelegenheit ohne Berührung des Völkerrechts.</p>
<p>Sowohl auf die Flüchtlingsströme als auch auf die schweren Menschenrechtsverletzungen nimmt der Sicherheitsrat ausdrücklich Bezug; in allen bisherigen Libyen-Resolutionen des Jahres 2011 äußert er seine Besorgnis über die Vorfälle.</p>
<p>(c) Die Lage in Libyen ist ein nicht-internationaler bewaffneter Konflikt, m. a. W. ein Bürgerkrieg (Rn. 10 ff.). In solchen nicht-internationalen bewaffneten Konflikten gilt das humanitäre Völkerrecht. Auch damit handelt sich nicht mehr um eine rein innerstaatliche Angelegenheit ohne Berührung des Völkerrechts. Da <em>spill-over</em>-Effekte vorliegen, kann dahingestellt bleiben, ob das bloße Vorliegen eine völkerrechtlich geregelten Lage (des Bürgerkrieges) eine Friedensbedrohung darstellt.</p>
<p>(d) Derzeit finden in zahlreichen Staaten der Region Proteste statt. Der Jahresbeginn 2011 ist geprägt von teilweise gewalttätigen Demonstrationen der Bevölkerungen gegen ihre Regierungen und politischen Systeme. Unabhängig davon, ob die Demonstranten demokratische Reformen anstreben oder wie groß der Anteil der Bevölkerung an den Demonstranten ist, kann die Protestwelle in mehreren Staaten nicht ignoriert werden. Der Sicherheitsrat kann sich damit auf die politische Großwetterlage berufen, um ein erfolgreiches Vorbild Gaddafi zu verhindern.</p>
<p>8      Damit sind die Handlungsvoraussetzungen aus Art. 39 VNCh erfüllt, der Sicherheitsrat hat die Situation in Libyen in rechtlich nicht zu beanstandender Weise an den IStGH überweisen.</p>
<p><strong>Einschränkung der Gerichtsbarkeit </strong><strong><em>ratione personae</em></strong><strong></strong></p>
<p>9      Wie schon in der Überweisung der Darfur-Situation an den IStGH nimmt der Sicherheitsrat bestimmte Personen von der Gerichtsbarkeit des IStGH aus. Es handelt sich vor allem um Angehörigen von Staaten, die nicht Vertragspartei des IStGH-Statuts sind. Da der IStGH aber nur aufgrund einer Resolution des Sicherheitsrat über Taten in Libyen, einer Nichtvertragspartei, tätig werden darf, und der Sicherheitsrat nur wenigen Beschränkungen in seiner Maßnahmenauswahl unterliegt, ist die Gerichtsbarkeitsausnahme rechtlich zulässig (vgl. <em>R. Frau</em>, Sicherheitsratsresolution 1593 [2005] – Wirksame völkerrechtliche Grundlage für Maßnahmen des IStGH im Darfur-Konflikt, DarfurSituation.org Analyse Nr. 1, 2010, Rn. 9 ff.).</p>
<p><strong>Anwendbarkeit des humanitären Völkerrechts</strong></p>
<p>10   Der Sicherheitsrat erinnert die libysche Regierung daran, dass sie ihren Verpflichtungen aus dem humanitären Völkerrecht nachkommen muss. Er geht damit von einer Anwendbarkeit des humanitären Völkerrechts in Libyen aus. Anwendbar ist das humanitäre Völkerrecht nur in bewaffneten Konflikten.</p>
<p>11    Ob ein solcher vorliegt, ist nicht ohne weiteres auszumachen. Der Konflikt zwischen der libyschen Regierung und den Rebellen könnte ein nicht-internationaler bewaffneter Konflikt sein. Was genau darunter zu verstehen ist, ist fraglich: Die verschiedenen vertragsrechtlichen Definitionen unterscheiden sich, ebenso wie die gewohnheitsrechtlichen Maßstäbe. Das Zweite Zusatzprotokoll der Genfer Abkommen, dessen Vertragspartei Libyen ist, ist nach dem restriktiven Art. 1 Abs. 1 anwendbar in allen bewaffneten Konflikten „die im Hoheitsgebiet einer Hohen Vertragspartei zwischen deren Streitkräften und abtrünnigen Streitkräften oder anderen organisierten bewaffneten Gruppen stattfinden, die unter einer verantwortlichen Führung eine solche Kontrolle über einen Teil des Hoheitsgebiets der Hohen Vertragspartei ausüben, dass sie anhaltende, koordinierte Kampfhandlungen durchführen und dieses Protokoll anzuwenden vermögen.“ Auf „Fälle innerer Unruhen und Spannungen wie Tumulte vereinzelt auftretende Gewalttaten und andere ähnliche Handlungen“ findet das Protokoll gemäß Art. 1 Abs. 2 keine Anwendung.</p>
<p>12    Die Schwelle zum nicht-internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt ist in jedem Fall dann überschritten, wenn die Aufständischen Teile des Staatsgebietes kontrollieren und Gewalt einer bestimmten Intensität eingesetzt wird.</p>
<p>13    Der Beginn der Proteste muss daher als Fall innerer Unruhe angesehen werden. Dies hat sich erst durch die zunehmende Gewalt geändert. Aufgrund der unklaren Tatsachenlage ist es an dieser Stelle allerdings unmöglich, einen genauen Beginn zu bestimmen. Der Beginn der Aufstände, ohne Gewalt von Seiten der Rebellen, ist nicht der Beginn des internen Konflikts. Auch die Gründung des Nationalen Übergangsrates ist nur als rein symbolische Handlung zu sehen. Sinnvoll und vertretbar hingegen ist es, den Bürgerkrieg mit der ersten Einnahme einer Stadt durch die Rebellen beginnen zu lassen, nämlich Brega am 25. Februar 2011. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt setzen die Rebellen erhöhte Gewalt ein und kontrollieren einen Teil des Staatsgebietes. Dieses spricht auch für eine Organisation der Rebellen, selbst wenn diese nur rudimentär sein sollte.</p>
<p>14    Der Sicherheitsrat hat mit Res. 1973 (2011) die Staaten dazu ermächtigt, militärische Gewalt gegen Libyen einzusetzen. Die Staaten fliegen Luftangriffe, somit wird zwischen zwei Völkerrechtssubjekten Gewalt einer gewissen Intensität eingesetzt: dies zieht einen internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt nach sich.</p>
<p>15    Beide Konflikte finden parallel statt. Es kann zu einer Verschmelzung zu einem einzigen internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt kommen, wenn die Staaten auf Seiten der Rebellen, also als deren Ersatzluftstreitmacht, in den internen Konflikt eingreifen.</p>
<p><strong>Begehung von Kriegsverbrechen und strafrechtlicher Maßstab</strong></p>
<p>16    Sowohl in einem nicht-internationalen als auch in einem internationalen bewaffneten Konflikt können Kriegsverbrechen begangen werden. Dies übersieht der Sicherheitsrat, wenn er seiner Sorge über mögliche Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit Ausdruck verleiht und nicht auf mögliche Kriegsverbrechen eingeht.</p>
<p>17   Für den Zeitraum vom 15.2. (Beginn des Überweisungszeitraums) bis zum 26.2.2011 (Erlass der Überweisungsresolution) ist Maßstab für die strafrechtliche Bewertung allein die jeweils gewohnheitsrechtliche Ausprägung. Denn zöge man den Katalog von Kriegsverbrechen in Artikel 8 Absatz 2 IStGH-Statut heran, dann verstieße dies gegen den Grundsatz des <em>nullum crimen sine lege</em> aus Art. 22 f. IStGH-Statut. Libysche Staatsangehörige mussten ihr Verhalten vor der Überweisungsresolution nicht an dem IStGH-Statut, sondern am Gewohnheitsrecht ausrichten, an diesem Maßstab müssen sie sich daher im Nachhinein messen lassen.</p>
<p>18    Dies mag politisch unerwünscht sein, rechtlich ergeben sich jedoch keine Strafbarkeitslücken. Denn auch das Gewohnheitsrecht sieht Straftatbestände für Kriegsverbrechen vor, unabhängig ob es sich um einen internationalen oder nicht-internationalen Konflikt handelt. Der gewohnheitsrechtliche Maßstab dürfte flexibler sein, da er einen weit gefassten Tatbestand vorsieht, anders als der ausführliche – und damit beschränkte –  Katalog des Art. 8 Abs. 2 IStGH-Statut.</p>
<p>19    Der Zeitraum seit der Sicherheitsratsüberweisung, also seit dem 26.2.2011 ist dagegen anders zu beurteilen. Nimmt man eine Legislativkompetenz des Sicherheitsrat an, die sich auch auf die Schaffung von völkerstrafrechtlichen Tatbeständen bezöge, dann hat der Sicherheitsrat durch die Überweisung auf das Statut verwiesen und damit den Straftatenkatalog erweitert. Für den Zeitraum zwischen dem 15. Februar 2011 und dem 26. Februar 2011 bleibt es auch nach dieser Auffassung beim Gewohnheitsrecht, denn sowohl der Sicherheitsrat als auch die Organe des IStGH sind an das Rückwirkungsverbot gebunden.</p>
<p><strong>Immunitäten</strong><strong></strong></p>
<p>20   Völkerstrafrechtliche Strafverfolgung setzt auf der Makroebene, den Regierungschefs und ihrem Umfeld, an. Beliebte Verteidigungstrategie der Verdächtigen ist es, sich auf Immunitäten zu berufen. Solche Immunitäten sind nach Art. 27 Abs. 1 IStGH-Statut allerdings nicht zu berücksichtigen. Aber dieser vertragsrechtliche Ausschluss gilt gerade nicht für die Nichtvertragspartei Libyen. Auch hier gelten, analog zur Begründung des strafrechtlichen Maßstabs, nur die gewohnheitsrechtlichen Ausnahmen der Immunität.</p>
<p>21    Auch Gaddafi selbst kann keine Immunität in Anspruch nehmen. Am einfachsten kann dies durch Äußerungen von Gaddafi begründet werden, er nimmt für sich in Anspruch, kein Staatsamt zu bekleiden sondern nur Revolutionsführer zu sein.</p>
<p>22    Darüber hinaus geht die herrschende Meinung davon aus, dass Immunitäten und folglich auch Ausnahmen von diesen Immunitäten weit gefasst sind. Anknüpfungspunkte sind damit nicht ausschließlich amtliche Eigenschaften, sondern auch <em>de-facto</em>-Positionen. Im Falle <em>Gaddafis</em> ist deutlich, dass er das <em>de-facto</em>-Staatsoberhaupt oder der <em>de-facto</em>-Regierungschef ist: fremde Staatsoberhäupter und Regierungschefs treffen sich mit ihm, nicht mit dem formellen Staatsoberhaupt und Sekretär des Allgemeinen Volkskongresses, <em>Mohamed Abu Qasm Zwai</em>, oder dem formellen Regierungschef <em>Al-Baghdadi Ali Al-Mahmudi</em>, dem Generalsekretär des Allgemeinen Volkskomitees. Davon geht auch das deutsche Bundesregierung aus, die <em>Gaddafi</em> auf den Internetseiten des Auswärtigen Amtes als <em>de-facto</em>-Staatsoberhaupt bezeichnet.</p>
<p><strong>Kooperationspflichten Libyens</strong><strong></strong></p>
<p>23    Libyen ist weder Vertragspartei des IStGH-Statuts noch hat es Statut unterschrieben, so dass auch das Frustrationsverbot aus Art. 18 WÜV nicht einschlägig ist. Dennoch wird für diese Situation Libyen wie eine Vertragspartei behandelt, es ist nach dem Teil 9 des Statuts zur vollständigen Kooperation mit dem IStGH verpflichtet. Dies gilt, weil der Sicherheitsrat sich das gesamte Statut zu Eigen macht und implizit auf das gesamte Statut verweist, Ausnahmen oder Einschränkungen macht er weder ausdrücklich noch implizit.</p>
<p><strong>Ankündigung des IStGH-Chefanklägers</strong><strong></strong></p>
<p>24    Bereits nach wenigen Tagen hat der Chefankläger des IStGH angekündigt, Ermittlungen einzuleiten. Die Anklagebehörde wird sich zunächst auf Vorwürfe wegen Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit konzentrieren, die von <em>Muammar al-Gaddafi</em> und seinen engsten Vertrauten begangen worden sein sollen. Dies ist aus drei Gründen anmerkenswert.</p>
<p>25    Erstens hat der Chefankläger damit einen Geschwindigkeitsrekord aufgestellt. Bisher hat er durchschnittlich wenige Monate gebraucht, um einen solchen Entschluss zu fassen. Meistens handelte es sich dabei um Situationen, in denen die Gewalt ein viel größeres Ausmaß hatte, als in Libyen. Auch wenn die Schnelligkeit aus rechtsstaalicher Sicht zu begrüßen ist, bleibt rätselhaft, warum der Ankläger diesmal so zügig entschieden hat.</p>
<p>26    Zweitens übersieht der Ankläger, dass in Libyen nicht nur Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit, sondern auch Kriegsverbrechen begangen werden können. Er wird seine Einschätzung in Zukunft korrigieren müssen (Rn. 10 ff.).</p>
<p>27   Der IStGH hat mit der Kenia-Situation eine Situation vorzuliegen, die, ähnlich wie die Situation in Libyen, nicht durch langandauernde Konflikte zwischen mehr oder weniger deutlich erkennbaren Gruppen gekennzeichnet ist, sondern in der Teile der Bevölkerung gegen die Regierungen kämpfen und die Gewalt innerhalb von wenigen Tagen auf beiden Seiten regelrecht explodiert ist. Der IStGH geht in Kenia dem Verdacht auf Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit nach. Innerhalb der Vorverfahrenskammer II ist allerdings umstritten, ob die „<em>post-election-violence“</em> in Kenia wirklich das Kriterium erfüllt, dass Handlungen „im Rahmen eines ausgedehnten oder systematischen Angriffs gegen die Zivilbevölkerung“ durchgeführt werden. So kann Richter <em>Kaul</em> keine <em>nationale</em> Organisation erkennen, die hinter den Gewalttaten steht. Ob dies auch im Falle Libyen problematisiert wird, bleibt abzuwarten, ist aber eher zweifelhaft – in Libyen handelt gerade die Zentralregierung und Richter <em>Kaul</em> ist kein Mitglied der Vorverfahrenskammer I, die für die Libyen-Situation zuständig ist.</p>
<p><strong>Ergebnis</strong><strong></strong></p>
<p>28    Die Resolution 1970 (2011) ist, wie schon ihr Vorbild Resolution 1593 (2005) rechtmäßig. Der IStGH hat nunmehr die völkerrechtliche Grundlage, Ermittlungen und Strafverfahren durchzuführen. Allerdings zeigt sich, dass der Sicherheitsrat und der Chefankläger nicht alle Aspekte ausreichend berücksichtigt haben und die Behandlung der libyschen Situation weiteren Entwicklungen unterliegen wird.</p>
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		<title>Analyse Nr. 8: Der vierte Fall der Darfur-Situation &#8211; Banda / Jerbus</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-8-der-vierte-fall-der-darfur-situation-banda-jerbus/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 18 May 2011 12:55:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
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		<title>Analyse Nr. 7: Trotz Haftbefehls: Omar al-Bashir auf Staatsbesuch – Zur Kooperationspflicht einiger Staaten</title>
		<link>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-7-trotz-haftbefehls-omar-al-bashir-auf-staatsbesuch-%e2%80%93-zur-kooperationspflicht-einiger-staaten/</link>
		<comments>http://darfursituation.org/analyse-nr-7-trotz-haftbefehls-omar-al-bashir-auf-staatsbesuch-%e2%80%93-zur-kooperationspflicht-einiger-staaten/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 18 May 2011 12:54:45 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Robert Frau</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Analysen]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://darfursituation.org/?p=410</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Erscheint demnächst!]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Erscheint demnächst!</em></p>
]]></content:encoded>
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		<slash:comments>0</slash:comments>
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